Context
The ivory plaque of the Crowning of Otto II and Theophanu represents the product of Frankish and Germanic rulers manufacturing political legitimacy through culture, religion, and imitation of earlier empires. In the late 5th and early 6th century, Clovis I, the king of the Merovingian Franks, unites the Frankish tribes and converts to Christianity. His conversion aligns Frankish royal authority with the Roman Church for the first time which creates a new political foundation that later Frankish rule would build on. Over the next two centuries, Merovingian kings gradually lose influence while their Mayors of the Palace accumulate real governing power. From 714 to 741, Charles Martel governs as Mayor of the Palace, and later divides the realm between his sons Pepin and Carloman. With support from the pope, Pepin ultimately replaces the last Merovingian king and is crowned the first Carolingian King of the Franks in 751. Pepin repays the papacy by granting conquered Italian territory which helps form the Papal States and a closer relationship between Carolingian rulers and the Church. From 768 to 814, Charlemagne, Pepin's son, expands the Frankish empire into the largest Western European state since the fall of Rome in 476 CE. He is now deliberately modeling himself off of previous Roman emperors, for example, he builds the Palatine Chapel at Aachen with distinct centrally-planned octagonal architecture as a direct copy of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian's San Vitale in Ravenna. By 800 CE, Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne Emperor in Rome which is a title that has previously been extinct in the West since 476. This alliance provides the Pope important military protection from external threats and greater imperial legitimacy for Charlemagne. Charlemagne works to reinforce this title through regalia and architecture to materially manufacture his claim to this new identity.
In 843, the empire is split among Charlemagne's three grandsons which permanently destroys the unified empire Charlemagne works to construct. Charles the Bald receives the West Franks, Lothair I the Middle Kingdom, and Louis the German the East Franks. The East Frankish Kingdom eventually passes out of Carolingian influence entirely which leaves no clear claim to the imperial title. Ultimately in 962, Otto I, Duke of Saxony and King of the East Franks with no Carolingian blood, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, claiming succession to Charlemagne's title. While this echoes earlier strategies like Pepin's papal coronation, the Ottonians need a more direct link with the Byzantine Empire to legitimize their claim. As such, Otto I marries his son Otto II to the Byzantine princess Theophanu in 972. The ivory plaque is carved in 982–83 and depicts Christ personally crowning both Otto II and Theophanu. The plaque directly mirrors that of Christ with Romanos II and Empress Eudokia (950 CE) but now an Ottonian emperor stands where a Byzantine emperor once stands. This imagery works to create a direct link between Ottonian and Byzantine imperial authority while forming a visual argument that Ottonian power is both divinely sanctioned and equal to Byzantium's.
Medieval Art Connection
A key takeaway from our discussions this week is that medieval rulers often had to actively build their legitimacy. Holladay argues that rulers relied on objects and visual symbols like crowns, thrones, orbs, scepters, and manuscripts to communicate their authority. For example, Charlemagne used imagery from King Solomon's ivory throne to signal divine approval. Aurell builds on this by distinguishing between Carolingian and Ottonian approaches. The Carolingians modeled themselves on Old Testament kings while the Ottonians went further by merging the image of Christ with that of the emperor. The ivory plaque of Otto II and Theophanu shows this because Christ is not approving their rule from a distance but is directly physically present and conferring that authority through touch. In medieval art history it is important to understand simulacrum in this context because the Ottonian strategy of legitimacy did not operate through a single medium or reference. Simulacrum means a likeness or imitation, from the Latin simulare meaning to imitate or pretend. The ivory plaque is a simulacrum of the Byzantine ivory of Christ with Romanos II and Empress Eudokia, copying its composition, Greek inscriptions, and format to place an Ottonian emperor where a Byzantine one originally stood. This practice extended into manuscript painting, parchment dyed to look like Byzantine silk, and marriage charters written in gold on purple to mimic Byzantine imperial documents. In this way, the Ottonians were using Byzantine style as a political tool to build a relationship with Constantinople. This matters for medieval art because style and material choices that appear decorative can often be deliberate acts of political positioning.
Reading Connection
In the Anglo-Saxon and Ottonian Christocentrism reading, the author explains that the Ottonian program was "strongly influenced by the greater connections established between the Ottonians and Byzantium" (158). In the image, Otto II is depicted wearing the imperial loros, a garment specific to Byzantine emperors, and the carving became the first representation of a coronation moment since late antiquity in the West. The author explains that it is important "above all in the political message that it conveys," which was that divinely derived power was supported by Byzantium and used to confirm Ottonian imperial autonomy (161). In this way, the depiction allows Otto II to claim that his power comes directly from Christ, without needing approval from Byzantium or the Pope. In the Royal and Imperial Iconography reading, Joan Holladay focuses more closely on how the image fits into a longer tradition of coronation images. She explains that images where God is physically present to crown a ruler "may depend on Byzantine precedents" (365). Specifically, she points to the ivory depiction of emperor Romanos and empress Eudokia being crowned by Christ. The marriage of Otto II and Theophanu brought images like this to the west, and Holladay argues that their ivory "repeats closely the composition and details of the slightly earlier Byzantine object" (366). Drawing on these earlier Byzantine practices highlights the Ottonian desire for a direct connection between the ruler and Christ, and that the visual idea of Christ sponsoring a ruler was not invented by the West but adopted from an already established Eastern tradition.
Style
The plaque is carved in ivory, which was a luxury material reserved for religious and royal contexts, measuring 18.5 x 10.6 cm. The three figures are arranged symmetrically with Christ at the center and tallest, and Otto II and Theophanu placed on either side at equal height and size. Christ's robes are simple and flowing while Otto and Theophanu's garments are covered in dense geometric patterns. All three figures face directly forward with flat bodies. An arch frames the image from above and holds the three figures tightly together within the space. The ivory is uncolored, so all the visual detail comes from the depth and texture of the carving. The overall effect works to place partificualr emphasnise on the political message rather than to create a realistic scene.
Depicted is Christ as the central and largest figure, standing elevated on a platform above the other two. He is wearing robes and has a halo above his head. Both of his arms extend outward above the two other figures. His position and size difference establish him as the source of authority being applied to the rulers below. As Christ, this also conveys a divine connection to the rule of Otto II and Theophanu.
Otto II is depicted standing to Christ's right, identified by Greek inscription. He is wearing a crown and patterned imperial clothing. He is depicted at a much smaller scale than Christ, receiving the blessing or coronation directly from Christ. His posture and right hand over his chest seem to signal an acceptance of God’s blessing.
Theophanu stands to Christ's left, also identified by Greek inscription. She is wearing a crown and similarly decorated imperial clothing which reflects Byzantine court dresses. She mirrors Otto's position symmetrically, receiving Christ's blessing with a hand on her chest. Her placement at the same scale and in the same relationship to Christ as Otto could indicate that she holds the same kind of authority as Otto and that this power comes from the same divine source.
Object Annotation 6
Joe Robinson
Created on March 9, 2026
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Transcript
Context
The ivory plaque of the Crowning of Otto II and Theophanu represents the product of Frankish and Germanic rulers manufacturing political legitimacy through culture, religion, and imitation of earlier empires. In the late 5th and early 6th century, Clovis I, the king of the Merovingian Franks, unites the Frankish tribes and converts to Christianity. His conversion aligns Frankish royal authority with the Roman Church for the first time which creates a new political foundation that later Frankish rule would build on. Over the next two centuries, Merovingian kings gradually lose influence while their Mayors of the Palace accumulate real governing power. From 714 to 741, Charles Martel governs as Mayor of the Palace, and later divides the realm between his sons Pepin and Carloman. With support from the pope, Pepin ultimately replaces the last Merovingian king and is crowned the first Carolingian King of the Franks in 751. Pepin repays the papacy by granting conquered Italian territory which helps form the Papal States and a closer relationship between Carolingian rulers and the Church. From 768 to 814, Charlemagne, Pepin's son, expands the Frankish empire into the largest Western European state since the fall of Rome in 476 CE. He is now deliberately modeling himself off of previous Roman emperors, for example, he builds the Palatine Chapel at Aachen with distinct centrally-planned octagonal architecture as a direct copy of the Byzantine Emperor Justinian's San Vitale in Ravenna. By 800 CE, Pope Leo III crowns Charlemagne Emperor in Rome which is a title that has previously been extinct in the West since 476. This alliance provides the Pope important military protection from external threats and greater imperial legitimacy for Charlemagne. Charlemagne works to reinforce this title through regalia and architecture to materially manufacture his claim to this new identity. In 843, the empire is split among Charlemagne's three grandsons which permanently destroys the unified empire Charlemagne works to construct. Charles the Bald receives the West Franks, Lothair I the Middle Kingdom, and Louis the German the East Franks. The East Frankish Kingdom eventually passes out of Carolingian influence entirely which leaves no clear claim to the imperial title. Ultimately in 962, Otto I, Duke of Saxony and King of the East Franks with no Carolingian blood, is crowned Holy Roman Emperor, claiming succession to Charlemagne's title. While this echoes earlier strategies like Pepin's papal coronation, the Ottonians need a more direct link with the Byzantine Empire to legitimize their claim. As such, Otto I marries his son Otto II to the Byzantine princess Theophanu in 972. The ivory plaque is carved in 982–83 and depicts Christ personally crowning both Otto II and Theophanu. The plaque directly mirrors that of Christ with Romanos II and Empress Eudokia (950 CE) but now an Ottonian emperor stands where a Byzantine emperor once stands. This imagery works to create a direct link between Ottonian and Byzantine imperial authority while forming a visual argument that Ottonian power is both divinely sanctioned and equal to Byzantium's.
Medieval Art Connection
A key takeaway from our discussions this week is that medieval rulers often had to actively build their legitimacy. Holladay argues that rulers relied on objects and visual symbols like crowns, thrones, orbs, scepters, and manuscripts to communicate their authority. For example, Charlemagne used imagery from King Solomon's ivory throne to signal divine approval. Aurell builds on this by distinguishing between Carolingian and Ottonian approaches. The Carolingians modeled themselves on Old Testament kings while the Ottonians went further by merging the image of Christ with that of the emperor. The ivory plaque of Otto II and Theophanu shows this because Christ is not approving their rule from a distance but is directly physically present and conferring that authority through touch. In medieval art history it is important to understand simulacrum in this context because the Ottonian strategy of legitimacy did not operate through a single medium or reference. Simulacrum means a likeness or imitation, from the Latin simulare meaning to imitate or pretend. The ivory plaque is a simulacrum of the Byzantine ivory of Christ with Romanos II and Empress Eudokia, copying its composition, Greek inscriptions, and format to place an Ottonian emperor where a Byzantine one originally stood. This practice extended into manuscript painting, parchment dyed to look like Byzantine silk, and marriage charters written in gold on purple to mimic Byzantine imperial documents. In this way, the Ottonians were using Byzantine style as a political tool to build a relationship with Constantinople. This matters for medieval art because style and material choices that appear decorative can often be deliberate acts of political positioning.
Reading Connection
In the Anglo-Saxon and Ottonian Christocentrism reading, the author explains that the Ottonian program was "strongly influenced by the greater connections established between the Ottonians and Byzantium" (158). In the image, Otto II is depicted wearing the imperial loros, a garment specific to Byzantine emperors, and the carving became the first representation of a coronation moment since late antiquity in the West. The author explains that it is important "above all in the political message that it conveys," which was that divinely derived power was supported by Byzantium and used to confirm Ottonian imperial autonomy (161). In this way, the depiction allows Otto II to claim that his power comes directly from Christ, without needing approval from Byzantium or the Pope. In the Royal and Imperial Iconography reading, Joan Holladay focuses more closely on how the image fits into a longer tradition of coronation images. She explains that images where God is physically present to crown a ruler "may depend on Byzantine precedents" (365). Specifically, she points to the ivory depiction of emperor Romanos and empress Eudokia being crowned by Christ. The marriage of Otto II and Theophanu brought images like this to the west, and Holladay argues that their ivory "repeats closely the composition and details of the slightly earlier Byzantine object" (366). Drawing on these earlier Byzantine practices highlights the Ottonian desire for a direct connection between the ruler and Christ, and that the visual idea of Christ sponsoring a ruler was not invented by the West but adopted from an already established Eastern tradition.
Style
The plaque is carved in ivory, which was a luxury material reserved for religious and royal contexts, measuring 18.5 x 10.6 cm. The three figures are arranged symmetrically with Christ at the center and tallest, and Otto II and Theophanu placed on either side at equal height and size. Christ's robes are simple and flowing while Otto and Theophanu's garments are covered in dense geometric patterns. All three figures face directly forward with flat bodies. An arch frames the image from above and holds the three figures tightly together within the space. The ivory is uncolored, so all the visual detail comes from the depth and texture of the carving. The overall effect works to place partificualr emphasnise on the political message rather than to create a realistic scene.
Depicted is Christ as the central and largest figure, standing elevated on a platform above the other two. He is wearing robes and has a halo above his head. Both of his arms extend outward above the two other figures. His position and size difference establish him as the source of authority being applied to the rulers below. As Christ, this also conveys a divine connection to the rule of Otto II and Theophanu.
Otto II is depicted standing to Christ's right, identified by Greek inscription. He is wearing a crown and patterned imperial clothing. He is depicted at a much smaller scale than Christ, receiving the blessing or coronation directly from Christ. His posture and right hand over his chest seem to signal an acceptance of God’s blessing.
Theophanu stands to Christ's left, also identified by Greek inscription. She is wearing a crown and similarly decorated imperial clothing which reflects Byzantine court dresses. She mirrors Otto's position symmetrically, receiving Christ's blessing with a hand on her chest. Her placement at the same scale and in the same relationship to Christ as Otto could indicate that she holds the same kind of authority as Otto and that this power comes from the same divine source.