Unit 6
Cities and Urban Areas
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Unit 6
01
05
Modern Challenges of Urbanization
Introduction to Urbanization
06
02
Unit 6 Test Review
Cities: Size, Distribution and Structure
03
Density, Land Use, and Infrastructure
04
Sustainability and Data
Unit 6 Big Ideas
Topic 1: Introduction to Urbanization
6.1.1.
6.1.2.
6.1.4.
6.1.3.
Megacities and Metacities
The Origin and Influences of Urbanization
Globalization
Suburbanization
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6.1.1. The Origin and Influences of Urbanization
4. Modifying Site Factors in Cities
3. Site
2. Urbanization
1. Development of Cities
5. Site Factors Around the World
7. Factors Influencing Urbanization
6. Situation
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Class Activity
6.1.2. Megacities and Metacities
3. Case Study: Lagos
2. Metacities
1. Megacities
4. Case Study: Tokyo
5. Reasons for Urban Growth
6. Pros and Cons of Megacities and Metacities
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6.1.3. Suburbanization
3. History of Suburbanization
2. Early History of Suburbanization
4. Baby Boom
1. Suburbanization
5. Desegregation
6. White Suburbia
7. Location of Suburbs
8. Suburban Government
10. Pros and Cons of Suburbanization
11. Current Suburban Trends
9. Land-Use Patterns
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6.1.4. Globalization
Start Here
2. Growth of Globalization
4. Importance of Port Cities
3. Industrial Revolution
1. What is Globalization?
6. Aspects of a World City
5. World Cities
In-Class Activity
Topic 2: Cities: Size, Distribution and Structure
6.2.1.
6.2.2.
6.2.4.
6.2.3.
Central Place Theory
City Size
City StructurePart 2
City StructurePart 1
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6.2.1. City Size
Start Here
3. Application of Rank-Size Rule
4. Primate City Rule
1. Gravity Model Applied
2. Rank-Size Rule
6. Negative Aspects of the Primate City Rule
5. Primate City
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6.2.2. Central Place Theory
Start Here
4. Principles of the Central Place Theory
3. Central Place Theory Model
1. Central Place Theory
2. Goods and Services
5. Market Area Analysis
6. Limitations of the Central Place Theory
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Transport Principle (K = 4 Principle)
Administrative Principle (K = 7 Principle)
Marketing Principle (K = 3 Principle)
6.2.3. City Structure Part 1
Start Here
4. Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model
2. Burgess Concentric Zone Model
3. Hoyt Sector Model
1. City Structure
5. Galactic City Model
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Class Activity
6.2.4. City Structure Part 2
Start Here
4. Southeast Asian City Model
3. Latin American City Model
1. Less-Developed Model Application
2. African City Model
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A large group of people who are united by common cultural characteristics, such as language and ethnicity, or by shared history.
Topic 3: Density, Land Use, and Infrastructure
6.3.1.
6.3.2.
Density and Land Use
Infrasructure
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6.3.1. Density and Land Use
Start Here
2. City Development
1. Cities Throughout the Ages
3. Population Growth
4. Urban vs. Rural
6. Role of Construction Technology in Urban Areas
7. History of Population Density of Cities
5. Infilling
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The location of a place relative to another place.
6.3.2. Infrastructure
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2. Hard Infrastructure
4. Critical Infrastructure
3. Soft Infrastructure
1. Infrastructure
5. Infrastructure as a Global Concern
7. Creating a Strong Infrastructure
6. Characteristics of Strong Infrastructure
8. Characteristics of Weak Infrastructure
9. Overcoming Infrastructure Challenges: Jamaica
10. Impact of Infrastructure on Cities
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The process by which a group's cultural features are altered to resemble those of another group.
Topic 4: Sustainability and Data
6.4.1.
6.4.3.
6.4.2.
Urban Sustainability Initiatives
Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Praise and Criticism
Urban Data
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6.4.1. Urban Sustainability Initiatives
Start Here
4. Mixed Land Use
2. Greenbelts
3. New Urbanism
1. Sustainability
5. Public Transportation
6. Public Transportation Difficulties
Class Activity
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The minimum number of people needed to support a service.
6.4.2. Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Praise and Criticism
Start Here
4. Smart Growth Principles in New York City
2. Case Study: Houston
1. Praise for Sustainability Initiatives
3. Walkability
7. Pros and Cons of Sustainability
5. Criticisms of Sustainability Initiatives
6. Cultural Drawbacks
Watch
Class Activity
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: An arc drawn on a map between the North and South poles.
6.4.3. Urban Data
Start Here
4. Case Study: San Francisco
3. Application of Quantitative Data
1. Types of Data
2. The Census
5. Case Study: New York City
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A boundary that separates regions in which different language usages predominate.
Topic 5: Modern Challenges of Urbanization
6.5.1.
6.5.2.
6.5.6.
6.5.3.
6.5.5.
6.5.4.
Economic and Social Challenges of Urbanization
Squatter Settlements
Responses to Urbanization
Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Urban Renewal and Gentrification
Responses to Urban Sustainability
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6.5.1. Economic and Social Challenges of Urbanization
Start Here
3. Discriminatory Practices in Housing
1. Housing
2. Blockbusting
4. Redlining
8. Disamenity Zones and Zones of Abandonment
5. Consequences of Blockbusting and Redlining
6. Segregation
7. Race and Economics
9. Case Study: Chicago
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A continuous urban complex in the northeastern United States.
6.5.3. Responses to Urbanization
Start Here
4. Pros and Cons of Zoning
3. Example of Zoning Changes
2. Inclusionary Zoning
1. Purpose of Zoning
8. Pros and Cons of the Local Food Movement
7. Government Subsidies
5. Zoning and Society
6. Local Food Movement
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The area surrounding a city from which milk is supplied.
6.5.4. Urban Renewal and Gentrification
Start Here
2. Where Urban Renewal Occurs
3. Urban Renewal and Gentrification
4. Pros and Cons of Gentrification
1. Urban Renewal
6. Transportation
5. Gentrification in Los Angeles
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: Transfer of money by workers to people in the country from which they emigrated.
6.5.5. Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Start Here
4. Air and Water Quality
2. Sanitation
3. Climate Change
1. Suburban Sprawl
8. Pros and Cons of Cleaner Energy
6. Ways to Reduce the Ecological Footprint
7. Energy Use
5. Ecological Footprint
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A place from which an innovation originates.
6.5.6. Responses to Urban Sustainability
Start Here
4. Case Study: Britain
2. Example of Regional Development
1. Regional Planning
3. Redevelopment
5. Urban Growth Boundaries
6. Effects of Urban Sprawl
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A map in which the projection and scale are distorted in order to convey the information of a variable.
Topic 6: Test Review
6.6.1.
Start Here
Unit 6 Review
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This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: An approach to geography that emphasizes the relationship among social and physical phenomena in a particular study area.
Cities Throughout the Ages
- Urban Density Over Time: Throughout history, population density in cities has been influenced by geography, economy, and politics. Residential patterns and cultural trends shape urban areas and continue to evolve.
- Historical Urbanization Trends: Ancient Rome, China, and India had densely packed cities with small streets and concentrated business areas. Medieval European cities had walled structures, limiting expansion and increasing density.
- Industrial Revolution Impact: The First Industrial Revolution increased urban density as people moved to cities for factory jobs. The Second Industrial Revolution introduced skyscrapers, railroads, and cars, allowing cities to grow both upwards and outwards.
- Modern Urban Trends: In developed countries, high-rise buildings and transportation systems spread out populations, while in developing nations, people remain near city centers for jobs, maintaining high urban density.
Rank-Size Rule
- Rank-Size Rule Overview: In some more-developed countries, city populations follow a predictable pattern where the nth-largest city has 1/n the population of the largest city (e.g., the second-largest city is half the size of the largest).
- Business & Economic Implications: The rank-size rule suggests multiple large cities provide economic opportunities, attracting businesses to different regions rather than just one dominant city.
- City Growth & Development: When cities grow, they continue attracting people and businesses based on size and economic opportunities, reinforcing regional development trends.
- U.S. Cities & the Rule: The rank-size rule applies to the largest U.S. cities, with New York, Los Angeles, and Chicago fitting the pattern. However, smaller cities deviate from the rule.
Overcoming Infrastructure Challenges
Jamaica
- Capital is essential for building infrastructure, as it funds the construction and maintenance of roads, utilities, and other systems.
- Less-developed countries often rely on loans from more-developed nations to finance infrastructure projects and support economic growth.
- Jamaica is an example of a country improving its infrastructure by seeking financial support from China and the U.S. to develop its systems.
The market area is the area surrounding a service that attracts customers.
Soft Infrastructure
- Soft infrastructure consists of services and institutions that support a city's organization and well-being, relying on human capital to function.
- Government and financial institutions help regulate city life, make decisions, and support economic growth by managing policies, financial stability, and business operations.
- Health care systems are essential for urban populations, with hospitals and medical services concentrated in cities and expanding to rural areas as infrastructure develops.
- Public safety services, including law enforcement and emergency response, maintain order, provide security, and ensure cities function smoothly by enforcing laws and assisting in crises.
Desegregation
- White Flight & Suburban Growth: During the 1950s and 1960s, many White families left cities for suburbs to avoid school desegregation, shaping suburban demographics.
- Housing Discrimination: Many suburbs promoted the "American Dream" but denied African American families access to housing through exclusionary practices like loan discrimination.
- Desegregation’s Impact: While some moved for lifestyle reasons, desegregation played a major role in suburban expansion, influencing school and community demographics.
Government Subsidies
- Definition & Purpose of Subsidies: Subsidies are financial support or tax cuts provided by the government to promote economic and social policies.
- Government Support for Local Food Movement: Subsidies help strengthen connections between local farmers and urban communities through schools, restaurants, grocery stores, and farmers' markets, aligning with sustainability efforts.
- Encouraging Consumer Connections: Some subsidies assist businesses in linking local agriculture to consumers, addressing challenges in maintaining demand for locally grown food.
Case Study
San Francisco
- Beyond Population Data: Cities can be understood through more than just numbers—data on the environment, infrastructure, and public opinion also play a key role.
- San Francisco’s Tree Initiative: The city is collecting data on tree health and public perception to assess urban greenery and its role in city planning.
- Importance of Urban Trees: Trees enhance city life by providing green spaces, supporting ecosystems, and influencing future urban development as cities grow.
Cultural Drawbacks
- Cultural Enclaves & Homogeneity: People naturally settle in communities with shared cultural backgrounds, creating diverse areas like Chinatown or Koreatown, but new urbanism can also lead to homogeneity in redevelopment.
- Economic & Social Divides: Sustainable development can unintentionally displace low-income residents, as wealthier areas benefit first while poorer communities, often home to minorities and immigrants, are left behind or pushed out.
- Balancing Growth & Inclusion: Cities must ensure development is fair, predictable, and inclusive by considering racial and economic diversity, engaging communities, and preventing displacement in revitalization efforts.
Urban Sustainability is Hard Heimler's History | YouTube
World Cities
- World cities are global hubs of business, trade, finance, and culture, shaping the global economy; the top three are London, New York, and Tokyo.
- Each world city grew differently: London thrived through the British Empire, New York expanded via immigration and trade, and Tokyo rose post-WWII through technological innovation.
- World cities attract multinational corporations due to their strong infrastructure, stock markets, and global influence, reinforcing their economic dominance.
Reasons for Urban Growth
- Key Drivers of Urban Growth: Jobs attract people to cities, fueling economic growth through trade, industry, and services. Strong governments, education systems, and healthcare are essential for managing and supporting a growing population.
- Infrastructure & Connectivity: Well-developed roads, electricity, and internet access help cities function efficiently. Megacities are often located near waterways or major transport routes, which have historically driven trade and development.
- Culture & Society in Megacities: Large cities provide basic necessities like food, water, and shelter, while architecture reflects cultural vibrancy. Diverse populations in developed megacities often foster greater human rights and social equality.
Cons
Pros
- Economic Growth and Job Creation: Urban renewal attracts new businesses, creating job opportunities and boosting the local economy.
- Demographic Shifts and Community Changes: Gentrification brings in young professionals and middle-class families, revitalizing neighborhoods with new residents.
- Improved Infrastructure and Safety: Renewal projects create cleaner city spaces, add green areas, enhance amenities, and contribute to lower crime rates in revitalized districts.
- Displacement and Rising Costs: Lower-income residents may be forced to leave due to increasing housing costs in revitalized areas.
- Loss of Local Character and History: Small businesses and historic buildings are often replaced by corporations and modern developments, erasing the neighborhood’s original identity.
- Social and Cultural Tensions: Mixing different demographic groups in renewed areas can lead to conflicts related to income, language, age, and cultural differences.
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Climate Change
- New Orleans & Flooding Risks: New Orleans’ location on a low-lying plain near the Mississippi River and the Atlantic Ocean makes it highly vulnerable to flooding. The city’s reliance on levees was exposed in 2005 when Hurricane Katrina caused catastrophic flooding.
- Climate Change & Rising Sea Levels: Climate change threatens New Orleans and other coastal cities as rising sea levels increase the risk of flooding and land loss. Many major urban centers worldwide face similar challenges.
- Global Impact on Cities: Cities like Jakarta, Shanghai, and Mumbai are sinking or threatened by rising oceans, while landlocked cities like Phoenix face extreme heat. Climate change is reshaping urban environments across the world.
Turning brownfield sites green Forestry England| YouTube
Blockbusting
- The Great Migration (1916-1970): Over 6 million African Americans moved from the rural South to northern, midwestern, and western cities to escape Jim Crow laws and find industrial jobs.
- Blockbusting & White Flight: Real estate agents used blockbusting tactics to convince White homeowners to sell their homes cheaply, leading to White flight and the growth of Black and immigrant communities in inner cities.
- Discriminatory Housing Practices: African Americans faced systemic housing discrimination through policies enforced by banks, city planners, and real estate agents, limiting their access to homeownership and wealth-building opportunities.
Unit 6 Big Ideas
- How do physical geography and resources impact the presence and growth of cities?
- How are the attitudes, values, and balance of power of a population reflected in the built landscape?
- How are urban areas affected by unique economic, political, cultural, and environmental challenges?
Gentrification Explained Urban Displacement Project | YouTube
Case Study: Britain
- Britain’s Industrial Legacy and Brownfields: The Industrial Revolution left many areas in Britain contaminated and unusable due to a lack of environmental regulations at the time.
- Challenges of Redevelopment: Repurposing brownfields can be risky, as disturbing toxic materials may introduce them into water or food systems, making proper management essential.
- Prioritizing Urban Infill Over Expansion: Cities are focusing on redeveloping unused urban land before expanding outward, using modern planning tools to encourage sustainable growth.
Urban InfrastructureHeimler's History | YouTube
New Urbanism
- Concept of New Urbanism: New Urbanism promotes walkability, public transportation, and sustainable urban development to limit sprawl and resource waste. It aims to create a “sense of place” by connecting homes, businesses, and public spaces.
- Response to Suburbanization: The movement emerged to counteract the economic decline caused by suburbanization, which drained cities of tax revenue and left infrastructure struggling. New Urbanism seeks to attract people back to cities by offering convenient and connected living spaces.
- Walkability and Sustainable Cities: Cities like Paris and Portland are implementing pedestrian-friendly streets, mixed-use developments, and expanded public transportation to reduce car dependency and encourage a vibrant urban lifestyle.
- Revitalization of Urban Spaces: Old parks and buildings are being repurposed for community engagement, entertainment, and businesses. Cities are integrating jobs, housing, and amenities to create diverse and sustainable economic centers.
Case Study
New York City
- Quantitative Data & Sustainability: Data on pollution, transportation, health, and food access helps cities develop sustainable infrastructure and minimize negative impacts of urban growth.
- Urban Data in New York City: Geographers analyze transit systems, traffic speeds, bike safety, and water cleanliness to understand and improve urban life.
- Using Data for Community Improvement: Tracking statistics on crime, parking violations, and rule compliance allows both geographers and citizens to make informed decisions for safer, more efficient cities.
World Cities & Globalization Explained Heimler's History | YouTube
How redlining prevented Black and Brown families from becoming home owners
Harvard Kennedy School | YouTube
Urbanization: How Cities Start & Grow Heimler's History | YouTube
Consequences of Blockbusting and Redlining
- Lasting Effects of Housing Discrimination: Although blockbusting and redlining were outlawed by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, their impact is still visible in many cities, especially those affected by the Great Migration.
- Systemic Racism & Limited Mobility: Redlining contributed to long-term racial segregation and economic inequality, with minorities still facing challenges in securing conventional mortgage loans.
- Wealth & Housing Connection: Homeownership remains a key factor in financial stability and wealth-building, but past discriminatory practices continue to limit opportunities for many minority communities.
Where Urban Renewal Occurs
- Urban Renewal and Tax Revenue: Cities rely on tax revenue to fund essential services. When businesses leave, tax income declines, leading to economic stagnation. Urban renewal aims to attract businesses and residents to revitalize struggling areas.
- Effects of Urban Decay and Renewal: Declining neighborhoods often experience crime, homelessness, and job loss. While past public housing projects sometimes worsened conditions, modern urban renewal often involves private developers to improve safety and economic stability.
- Location and Impact of Urban Renewal: Renewal projects typically focus on older, low-income areas near transportation hubs or wealthier districts. These areas attract young professionals who need affordable housing close to the Central Business District (CBD).
Burgess Concentric Zone Model
- The Burgess Concentric Zone Model (1923) – Created by sociologist Ernest Burgess, this model explains urban structure using five concentric rings, starting from the Central Business District (CBD) and moving outward. It shows a correlation between economic status and distance from downtown—wealthier residents tend to live farther from the CBD.
- Application and Historical Context – The model was based on U.S. and European cities that industrialized early, such as Chicago, New York, and Boston. It was developed before the suburban boom of the 1950s and primarily applies to cities that grew before widespread automobile use.
- Limitations of the Model – While the model helps explain early urban patterns, it is too simplistic for modern cities. It does not account for factors like physical geography (natural barriers that shape urban growth) or the increasing complexity of cities with multiple centers of activity.
Industrial Suburb
This is an industrial area located outside the city due to the need for space and a tax break.
History of Suburbanization
- Post-WWII Suburban Boom: After WWII, the desire for family life and safety, along with the baby boom, created a demand for more housing, fueling suburbanization in the 1950s.
- Economic Prosperity & Infrastructure: The U.S. experienced economic growth after WWII, leading to investments in infrastructure, including interstate highways funded by the government and private companies.
- Interstates & Suburban Growth: Highways connected cities, making commuting easier and unintentionally encouraging the growth of suburbs as workers could live outside cities while still working in them.
Cons
Pros
- Seasonal & Limited Availability: Local food is not always available year-round, as some crops grow only in certain seasons, unlike grocery stores that import food from other continents.
- Unreliable Supply: Natural disasters, droughts, or other environmental factors can severely limit the availability of local food, making it an uncertain food source.
- Higher Costs & Limited Variety: Local food can be more expensive due to limited supply, and certain foods like tropical fruits must be imported since they do not grow well in many regions.
- Sustainability of Small Farms: Small farms prioritize quality over quantity and can implement more sustainable practices, such as reducing pesticide use and limiting excess costs.
- Economic & Environmental Benefits: Local farms save money by avoiding long transportation routes and delivering produce directly to farmers' markets, reducing environmental impact.
- Support for Local Families & Businesses: Unlike large corporate farms, small farms are often family-run, and farmers' markets help them compete by restricting sales to smaller businesses.
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History of Population Density of Cities
- Historical Influence on Urban Structure: Cities like Paris preserve historical landmarks by limiting building heights, reducing density in certain areas to maintain cultural and historical significance.
- Economic Growth and Urban Expansion: Beijing has experienced waves of population growth over centuries, with modern development accelerating since 1979 through economic reforms, leading to high-rise construction and increased density.
- Cultural Shifts and Population Trends: Mumbai’s rapid urbanization is driven by rural-to-urban migration, with traditional large family structures persisting, though urban families are beginning to have fewer children.
Gentrification in Los Angeles
- Urban Sprawl and Vertical Growth: Los Angeles has expanded significantly, and city planners are promoting vertical growth to manage urban sprawl.
- Gentrification and Homelessness: Urban renewal efforts have revitalized older areas but have also displaced many lower-income residents, increasing homelessness.
- Traffic and Transportation Challenges: The city's rapid growth has led to major transportation and congestion issues, posing ongoing challenges for city planners.
Case Study
Houston
- Rapid Expansion & Consequences: Houston’s land area has grown nearly 60% in 20 years, converting farmland into urban development. This has led to increased impermeable surfaces, worsening flood risks, as seen during Hurricane Harvey.
- Metropolitan Growth & Diversity: The Houston metro area spans over 10,000 square miles, larger than five Northeastern states combined, with over 120 cities and a highly diverse cultural scene. However, most growth has occurred in the suburbs rather than in the city itself.
- Smart Growth Initiatives: In response to flooding and urban sprawl, Houston city planners are focusing on sustainable development, including improved public transportation, better water management, and data-driven urban planning.
Criticisms of Sustainability Initiatives
- Modernization Costs: Older buildings require costly upgrades to electrical, plumbing, and HVAC systems, leading many cities to demolish and rebuild rather than renovate.
- Waste & Landfill Impact: Demolished buildings generate large amounts of waste, as recycling old materials is often too expensive, contributing to landfill overflow.
- Infrastructure Overhaul: Updating transportation systems requires tearing down old buildings and roads, using significant resources and creating temporary disruptions.
Primate City
- Reasons for Primate Cities: Primate cities develop early in a country's history, attracting business and population before other areas can grow. Smaller countries are more likely to have a primate city due to limited space for multiple influential cities.
- Historical Influence: Colonialism played a major role in creating primate cities, as European powers established single economic and governmental hubs in colonized countries, which remain dominant today.
- Example of Mexico City: Mexico City, more than four times the size of Tijuana, exemplifies the primate city rule in a developing country where industrialization has not yet balanced growth across the nation.
Example of Zoning Changes
- Urban Growth & Zoning Changes: Cities are restructuring zoning laws to promote denser city centers, mixed-use developments, and inclusionary zones to balance economic growth and sustainability.
- Boise’s New Urbanism Approach: Due to rapid population growth, Boise is redesigning roads, expanding public transportation, and updating zoning to support mixed-use housing, walkability, and a stronger sense of community.
- Community & Government Collaboration: City officials work with residents to shape urban development, using zoning changes to address social challenges and create a more sustainable, resident-friendly city.
9: Industry, Innovation and Infrstructure Earth Again | YouTube
Infrastructure
- Infrastructure includes physical structures and organizational systems that support human culture, business, and the economy.
- It enables societies and economies to function by connecting services, enterprises, and people.
- Geographers classify infrastructure into hard infrastructure (physical systems like roads and utilities) and soft infrastructure (institutions like education and healthcare).
These lines represent the extent of the market area that the city (blue dot) or the town (purple dot) will service for higher-order goods and services. If you were to pull farther back, there would eventually be another large blue dot with a large market area.
Praise for Sustainability Initiatives
- Causes & Consequences: Urban sprawl results from population growth and cities’ roles in economics and politics. It leads to suburban expansion, long commutes, air pollution, and the loss of natural and agricultural land.
- Sustainability & Smart Growth: Cities are addressing urban sprawl by promoting compact, vertical growth, which helps preserve natural land, reduce pollution, and lower infrastructure costs.
- Benefits of Limiting Sprawl: Walkable communities encourage social interaction, reduce reliance on cars, and create healthier, more sustainable urban environments.
African City Model
- De Blij’s Urban Model: Harm De Blij created a model in 1962 to explain urbanization in less-developed countries, particularly in Sub-Saharan Africa. It follows the concentric zone model, where cities grow outward from the central business district (CBD). However, unlike other models, it features three CBDs: the old city, the colonial city, and the market, reflecting historical influences.
- Colonial Impact on City Structure: African cities still show colonial influences, with European-designed straight-line planning in central areas but less organization in residential zones. The lack of a large wealthy class has led to a different urban structure than in more-developed countries.
- Urbanization Challenges: Many African cities, including Nairobi, lack proper city planning and infrastructure, resulting in limited access to electricity, sewage, running water, and public services. This has led to informal settlements surrounding the CBD, with little distinction between zones.
- Nairobi as a Case Study: Nairobi's population has grown rapidly since Kenya's independence in 1963, driven by rural migration. Many newcomers live in squatter settlements due to a lack of affordable housing. The city’s slow industrial development has affected urban planning, leaving a lasting impact on its structure.
Why Geography Matters More than Ever
Development of Cities
- Early Urbanization & Government Formation: Ancient Mesopotamia saw the rise of the first cities after the First Agricultural Revolution, leading to the development of trade, governance, and law. The Roman Empire expanded urbanization through infrastructure, entertainment, and a common language, while medieval European castles provided security and economic organization.
- Colonial & Industrial Urban Growth: European colonization influenced global urban planning, shaping cities in South America, Africa, and Asia. The Industrial Revolution marked a major turning point, shifting populations from rural areas to urban centers due to factory jobs, leading to rapid city expansion.
- Modern Urbanization & Challenges: Industrialization and globalization continue driving urbanization, especially in developing countries. Rapid urban growth often outpaces infrastructure, leading to overcrowding, lack of housing, and informal squatter settlements, particularly in fast-growing cities like Shanghai.
Central Place Theory Model
- Christaller’s Observations & City Patterns: Christaller observed that cities are surrounded by smaller villages and market towns, creating a hierarchical settlement pattern. His Central Place Theory explains how these settlements provide goods and services based on population needs.
- Why Hexagons?: The model uses hexagons instead of circles or squares because hexagons fit together without gaps or overlaps. They also maintain more consistent distances from the center to the edges, making them ideal for mapping market areas.
- Hexagons Represent Market Areas: Each central place is at the center of a hexagonal market area, ensuring that all cities, towns, and villages fit into the theory without empty spaces. The hexagon model visually represents how settlements are distributed.
- Application to Business & Economics: The market area, range, and threshold concepts of the Central Place Theory apply not only to population distribution but also to business locations. Businesses use these principles to determine the best locations for services and stores.
Quantitative & Qualitative Data for Urban PoliciesHeimler's History | YouTube
The hinterland is the area surrounding the central place and usually closely tied economically to the market area.
Application of Rank-Size Rule
- Origins & Evolution of the Rank-Size Rule: The rule was originally developed by linguist George Zipf in the 1930s, but modern population trends, like suburbanization and technological advancements, have altered its applicability.
- Infrastructure & Population Shifts: Improvements in roads, communication, and the Internet have interconnected wealth and population, leading to regional development beyond what the rank-size rule predicts.
- Economic Hubs & Regional Growth: The U.S. has multiple economic centers (e.g., New York, Los Angeles, Chicago) that drive development, showing how infrastructure, taxes, and wealth distribution impact growth.
- Development & Wealth Distribution: More-Developed Countries (MDCs) spread economic opportunities across various regions, leading to better infrastructure, services, and economic stability beyond a single dominant city.
Suburban Government
- City vs. Suburban Government: Cities have diverse populations with more competition for political influence, while suburbs offered residents more local control over government decisions.
- Desegregation & Suburbanization: The Brown v. Board of Education (1954) ruling led to resistance in some areas, prompting White families to move to suburbs seeking less diverse schools and communities.
- Suburban Independence & Growth: Suburbs developed their own governments, raised taxes for better services, and sometimes became independent municipalities, while some cities expanded by annexing nearby suburban areas.
Curipod In-Class Activity
- This activity will be completed as a class.
- Follow the link to Curipod.
- The join code will be shared on the screen.
Curipod Link
City Development
- Geography and Urban Change: Natural factors like river shifts, floods, and climate changes have historically influenced population density, leading to the rise and decline of cities, as seen in Mohenjo-Daro and the Fertile Crescent.
- Economic Impact on Urban Growth: Trade and industry drive urban density. Historically, trade centers were located along ports and routes, while the Industrial Revolution enabled high-rise housing, allowing more people to live in smaller spaces.
- Political Influence on City Structure: Government policies shape urban density by limiting outward expansion (e.g., European city planning) or restricting building heights (e.g., Bali), affecting how cities grow and develop.
Goods and Services
- High- vs. Low-Order Goods & Services: High-order goods (e.g., cars, specialized medical care) require a large population and are found in big cities. Low-order goods (e.g., groceries, gas) are needed frequently and are available in small towns. People travel farther for high-order goods but stay local for low-order ones.
- Cities as Economic & Cultural Hubs: Larger cities influence surrounding towns through economic, political, and cultural ties. Smaller settlements depend on cities for high-order goods and services, creating a hierarchy of urban centers.
- Key Concepts: Market Area, Range, and Threshold: A market area is the geographic zone a business serves. Range is the maximum distance people will travel for a good or service. Threshold is the minimum population needed to sustain a business.
- Impact on City and Business Locations: Businesses with low range (fast food) cluster in cities, while high-range businesses (concert venues) are spaced farther apart. Towns close to cities rely on urban centers, while distant towns develop their own businesses to meet demand.
Characteristics of Weak Infrastructure
- Weak infrastructure limits economic growth, as poor roads in rural areas prevent the efficient movement of goods and people, making trade and business development difficult.
- Unreliable electricity hinders progress, as unstable power grids in unincorporated or informal areas disrupt daily life and make it difficult for businesses to operate consistently.
- Lack of clean water and sanitation affects public health, leading to widespread disease and making it harder for communities to develop and sustain economic stability.
Low-Class Residential
This zone is occupied by the lower class, who work in industry or in the hourly wage jobs of the CBD.
Population Growth
- Historical Population Spikes: Major population growth occurred in the 1500s due to globalization and increased food production, and again after World War II, leading to rapid urbanization and the rise of megacities.
- Urbanization and Economic Shifts: The post-WWII population boom drove urban density as people moved to cities for jobs, continuing trends from the Industrial Revolution when economic changes fueled urban growth.
- Future Population Trends: Global population is expected to peak at 9–10 billion before stabilizing, as developed nations see declining birth rates, a trend likely to spread as more countries modernize.
Limitations of the Central Place Theory
- Limitations of Geography in the Model: The Central Place Theory assumes a flat, uniform landscape, but real-world geography—such as mountains, rivers, and coastlines—affects settlement patterns. For example, cities like New York grow differently due to their geographic constraints.
- Government & Political Influence: Christaller’s model is based on a capitalist system, but government policies influence city growth, business success, and land use. Politics and cultural shifts also play a major role in shaping market areas.
- Modern Changes & Adaptation: Since World War II, urbanization, technology, and economic shifts have changed settlement patterns. While the model still applies in rural areas, geographers adapt it to fit modern economic and political realities.
What is Globalization?
- Globalization creates connections between countries in economics, culture, politics, and technology, leading to shared ideas, jobs, and innovations.
- Economic cooperation promotes peace, as trade agreements and interdependence make it easier for countries to find common ground politically.
- Post-WWII efforts linked trade to peace, with leaders like Cordell Hull arguing that free trade reduces economic rivalries, lowering the chances of war.
Walkability
- Health & Walkability: Walkable neighborhoods promote healthier lifestyles, reducing obesity and hospital visits, while car-dependent areas tend to have higher health risks.
- Livability Index & Urban Planning: Cities are improving livability by integrating housing, transportation, health, and environmental initiatives, ensuring diverse socioeconomic opportunities and reducing pollution.
- Sustainability Initiatives: Urban areas are embracing public transportation, electric car infrastructure, mixed-use developments, and pedestrian-friendly streets to reduce congestion and enhance city living.
Characteristics of Strong Infrastructure
- Core countries have strong infrastructure because they have spent years planning, developing, and investing in public services like transportation, water treatment, and renewable energy.
- Infrastructure supports economic growth, with financial centers providing loans, roads enabling trade, and governments managing essential services like education, safety, and utilities.
- Well-built structures and reliable transportation create stable environments for business and daily life, allowing cities to expand and populations to grow.
- Infrastructure evolves over time, as cities reinvest in better energy sources, updated transportation, and improved public services to sustain long-term development.
How Are Cities Organized? Crash Course | YouTube
The large blue dot is an important city. Most big businesses will choose to locate to the blue dot, or in a large city. Many of the high-range businesses and large stores are located here. This is because many businesses compete for customers, and cities have the most potential customers. Big cities are the only places where these big businesses would survive.
Segregation
- Widespread Impact of Discriminatory Practices: Blockbusting and redlining occurred in hundreds of U.S. cities, leading to long-term racial segregation and concentrated poverty in African American communities.
- Economic Decline & Disinvestment: Segregated neighborhoods often lacked economic stability, as decades of discrimination prevented investment and growth.
- Cycle of Urban Decline: As middle- and high-income families left, businesses followed, reducing tax revenue and leading to decreased city services and support for these communities.
Redevelopment
- Urban Change and Redevelopment: As cities evolve, industries and businesses relocate, leaving behind abandoned or underused spaces. Redevelopment ensures these areas are repurposed, reducing the need for urban sprawl.
- Brownfields and Environmental Challenges: Some abandoned sites, like old gas stations and industrial areas, may be contaminated. Before redevelopment, experts must remediate these brownfields to ensure public safety.
- Repurposing Land for Urban Growth: Cities can revitalize brownfields by removing toxins, demolishing unused structures, or allowing private companies to repurpose sites, turning dead land into valuable urban space.
Example of Zoning Changes
- Urban Growth & Zoning Changes: Cities are restructuring zoning laws to promote denser city centers, mixed-use developments, and inclusionary zones to balance economic growth and sustainability.
- Boise’s New Urbanism Approach: Due to rapid population growth, Boise is redesigning roads, expanding public transportation, and updating zoning to support mixed-use housing, walkability, and a stronger sense of community.
- Community & Government Collaboration: City officials work with residents to shape urban development, using zoning changes to address social challenges and create a more sustainable, resident-friendly city.
Urban Sustainability Heimler's History | YouTube
- less-dense population, mainly because most houses are single-family homes
- larger area for living per family due to the fact that historically rural areas focused on agriculture
- “slower life” due to fewer people, different economy, and other aspects
- fewer job opportunities due to less need for businesses
- more focus on agriculture because of the large land areas available for farming and livestock
Urban
Rural
- dense population due to the high cost of land
- many apartments and multi-family residences due to the high cost of land
- “busy life” due to the number of people going to the jobs and businesses needed to support a large population
- a large number of jobs due to the number of people
- more focus on secondary and tertiary sector jobs, which can be done inside buildings instead of outside
VS
- Proximity to the City: Suburbs thrive economically by being close to central cities, which offer entertainment, businesses, and cultural amenities.
- Education & Family Life: Suburban schools often outperform city schools due to better funding, and suburbs are designed with families in mind, providing parks and community activities.
- Specialized Services: Suburban businesses cater to local needs, such as landscaping for homes with yards, making daily life more convenient for residents.
Pros
- Commuting & Environmental Impact: Suburban living leads to longer commutes, increased gas emissions, and traffic congestion, contributing to less time at home and more pollution.
- Loss of Agricultural Land: Suburbs have expanded onto prime agricultural land, pushing farming further away and increasing the need to transport produce, which impacts fresh food access in inner cities.
- Social & Resource Issues: Suburbanization contributes to inner-city decline, social separation due to housing design, and inefficient land use, as suburbs consume more space and resources compared to urban high-rises.
Cons
VS
Current Suburban Trends
- Evolving Suburban Demographics & Politics: While early suburbs were largely White due to White flight, modern suburbs are becoming more diverse with growing African American, Hispanic, and immigrant populations. Suburbs also play a key role in influencing elections.
- Economic Challenges & Housing Crises: Rising suburban poverty is linked to high mortgage costs and risky bank loans, contributing to economic instability. This issue became evident during the 2008–2009 housing crisis and was further impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic.
- Continued Growth & Urban Sprawl: Suburbs have expanded due to factors like the G.I. Bill, baby boom, interstate system, and desegregation. Urban sprawl continues to spread across all states, keeping suburbs central to the “American Dream.”
Galactic City Model
- The Galactic City Model (1960) – Created by Chauncy Harris, this model highlights the impact of suburbanization, showing cities with multiple edge cities surrounding a high-rise central area. It emphasizes the role of consumer and business services in urban growth.
- Urban Expansion and Economic Drivers – Based on Detroit’s growth in the 1960s, this model shows how shopping malls, office parks, and industries drive city development, shifting focus from where people live to where they work and shop. Transportation plays a key role in connecting these areas.
- Strengths and Weaknesses – While this model explains suburban expansion and economic growth, it overlooks urban density, residential diversity, and city connectivity, emphasizing urban sprawl rather than a unified city structure.
Public Transportation Difficulties
- Challenges of Implementing Public Transportation: Cities face unique obstacles based on their growth and infrastructure. Fast-growing cities like Austin struggle with overcrowded roads, while older cities like Detroit must balance development with preserving historic buildings.
- Cost and Space Limitations: Public transportation projects require significant funding, and land near central business districts (CBDs) is expensive. Construction often involves demolishing older buildings, raising concerns about historical preservation.
- Equity and Accessibility: City planners must ensure public transportation serves all socioeconomic groups. Without accessible transit, lower-income residents may struggle to reach job opportunities, limiting economic mobility.
Urbanisation and the rise of the megacity The Economist | YouTube
Low-Class Residential
This zone is home to residents who cannot pay high prices for housing. The apartments in this area are often not kept well due to the low income of many of the residents. Many of the people who live in this area work in hourly wage jobs in the CBD or in industries nearby. The low-class section is directly related to the industrial section. This is because most industrial workers do not make much money and cannot afford to move farther from this area. Transportation costs money, so poorer workers tend to live as close to work as possible.
Discriminatory Practices in Housing
- Redlining & Loan Discrimination: From the 1930s to 1968, banks, city planners, and real estate agents used maps to deny loans to Black and immigrant communities, restricting their access to homeownership and wealth-building.
- Zoning & Housing Segregation: Zoning laws increased housing costs and restricted multi-family developments, reinforcing racial and economic segregation in cities by limiting where African Americans and other minorities could live.
- Long-Term Economic Impact: Discriminatory housing practices prevented African Americans from owning homes, forcing generations to rent instead of building wealth through property ownership.
City Structure
- Cities Have a Functional Structure – Cities are organized spatially to support different functions, including commerce, industry, education, and residential areas. They are not random collections of buildings but structured spaces with distinct roles.
- Key Components of City Structure – Cities typically include a Central Business District (CBD) (an economic hub with services and businesses), industrial centers (formerly in the CBD but now along highways), affluent residential areas (in suburbs or near the CBD), and poorer residential areas (often in decayed inner-city neighborhoods or on city outskirts).
- Importance of Transportation – Efficient transportation networks (subways, highways, railroads, and buses) connect different areas, expanding business opportunities and improving commuting, which strengthens the economy.
- City Models and Growth Patterns – Geographers use monocentric models (cities with a single center) and polycentric models (cities with multiple centers) to explain urban land-use patterns and city expansion.
Zoning Matters: How Land-Use Policies Shape Our Lives
Urban Institute | YouTube
Zone of Transition
The zone of transition is a mixture of residential and commercial. This area is adjacent to the CBD and is continuously changing as the CBD grows, as transition is in the names. The zone has a high population density, and those residing there make up the poorest part of the population and have the worst housing conditions.
Greenbelts
- Purpose of Greenbelts: Greenbelts are designated undeveloped lands inside or around cities to limit urban sprawl and provide natural spaces for residents. Government policies prevent development in these areas to preserve open land.
- Greenbelts in Europe: European cities have successfully used greenbelts since WWII to control urban growth. Unlike the U.S., European cities have wealthier inner areas, with lower-income populations on the outskirts. Greenbelts help maintain farmland and reduce urban expansion.
- Greenbelts in the United States: U.S. cities are implementing greenbelts to prevent urban expansion and encourage vertical development. Some greenbelts serve as parks or nature reserves to provide urban dwellers with outdoor spaces.
- Case Studies of Greenbelts: Examples include New York’s Staten Island Greenbelt (2,800 acres) and Portland’s greenbelt, which has slowed urban sprawl despite population growth. These initiatives support smart growth and long-term urban planning.
Urbanization
- The Role of Cities in Civilization: Cities have always been centers for politics, economics, culture, and social activities, providing people with essential resources in one place. Thriving cities offer opportunities and interconnected communities.
- Site, Situation & Urban Growth: A city's location is influenced by site (physical characteristics) and situation (proximity to other places). Transportation, trade routes, and communication networks have historically shaped where cities develop.
- Economic & Migration Patterns: Urban growth has long been driven by economic opportunities. Trade routes like the Silk Road, industrial expansion, and migration patterns—including global immigration to U.S. cities in the late 19th century—continue to shape settlement trends.
How the Census Changed America Untold History | YouTube
Marketing Principle
K=3 Principle
The marketing principle states that the market areas at a certain level of the central place hierarchy are three times bigger than the next lowest one. For example, when there are two cities, there would be six towns, 18 villages, and 54 hamlets
Effects of Urbanization Heimler's History | YouTube
Urban Renewal
- Urban Growth and Decline: Cities go through cycles of growth and decline, as seen in Detroit, which has lost nearly 60% of its population since the mid-1900s, leaving once-thriving areas abandoned.
- Urban Renewal: Governments and private businesses invest in redeveloping deteriorated neighborhoods to boost economic development, a process historically funded by federal programs like the Housing Acts of 1949 and 1954.
- Economic Impact of Large Companies: Businesses like Amazon can transform urban centers by bringing jobs, tax revenue, and economic growth, which cities aim to leverage for revitalization efforts.
For today's video, we will review it in EdPuzzle. To do so, you will need to join our class in EdPuzzle first. Class Code: aneebro
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Heavy Manufacturing
This area is occupied by businesses that are involved in manufacturing large equipment and need a large space. This manufacturing usually produces pollution and noise, so such businesses are located on the outskirts of the city. Also, this area is located near the low-class area, where most of its workers live.
Public Transportation
- Historical Development of Public Transportation: Cities have relied on public transportation since the railroad era, but car affordability and suburban expansion in the U.S. led to a decline in transit use. Recently, cities have begun reinvesting in public transportation.
- Types of Public Transportation: Public transit includes buses, trains, subways, and vanpool services. Buses share streets with cars, while trains and subways operate on designated tracks, reducing congestion and providing reliable transportation.
- Challenges in the U.S.: While public transportation is widely used worldwide, U.S. cities face challenges in expanding and improving transit systems to reduce car dependency and increase accessibility.
Hoyt Sector Model
- The Hoyt Sector Model (1939) – Economist Homer Hoyt developed this model to explain city structure, placing the CBD at the center with residential sectors (low-, middle-, and high-class) and an industrial/transportation corridor extending outward. Unlike the concentric zone model, these areas are shaped like sectors rather than rings.
- Economic and Transportation Influence – Hoyt's model emphasizes the relationship between economic class, transportation, and city structure. Proximity to the CBD and transportation routes determines land use, with industry often aligned along transportation corridors.
- Limitations of the Model – The sector model is outdated as it does not account for suburbanization, modern transportation, or edge cities. It was based on early 20th-century cities like Chicago and does not fully represent the complexity of contemporary urban development.
The threshold is the minimum number of people needed to support a service or business.
The Central Place Theory & Urban Hierarchy Mr. Sinn | YouTube
Negative Aspects of the Primate City Rule
- Rapid Growth & Industrialization: Many less-developed countries (LDCs) with primate cities have recently industrialized, attracting outside investments due to better infrastructure, leading to rapid population growth.
- Slums & Rural Migration: Mass migration from rural areas overwhelms city resources, leading to the growth of slums and shantytowns. Mechanized farming also displaces rural workers, pushing them toward the primate city in search of jobs.
- Unequal Development: Primate cities concentrate political, economic, and business activity, leaving other cities underdeveloped. International companies typically invest only in the primate city, further widening regional disparities.
- Infrastructure Disparities: While the primate city develops strong infrastructure (roads, clean water, electricity, and internet), rural and smaller urban areas often lack these essentials. Over time, a secondary city may develop, leading toward a more balanced rank-size rule distribution.
Megacities
- Growth of Megacities: Megacities have over 10 million people, with nearly 30 worldwide. As global populations rise, urbanization increases, leading to more megacities across multiple continents.
- Challenges of Defining Megacities: Megacities are centers of culture, economy, and innovation, but defining their boundaries and populations is complex. Geographers use satellite imagery and census data to estimate their size and population.
- Urban Expansion & Adaptation: As megacities grow, they add housing and improve transportation to connect urban areas. Geographers track these changes to understand and manage urban population growth.
The Census
- Purpose & Importance of the Census: A census counts people, homes, and other key data to understand demographics, guide community planning, and allocate government resources.
- Historical Census Practices: The first known census was in 3800 BCE Babylon, and later examples include China's Han Dynasty (2 CE) and the Inca's quipu system (1400s). The U.S. conducted its first census in 1790, initially excluding Native Americans and undercounting enslaved people.
- Census Innovations & Impact: The 1890 U.S. census introduced electric tabulating machines, leading to modern data collection. The 1920 census revealed urban growth due to immigration, showing more Americans lived in cities than rural areas for the first time.
- Modern Census & Applications: The U.S. census occurs every 10 years, helping businesses, city planners, and researchers make informed decisions. Census data is used to calculate population density (people per unit area) and predict future trends, like Congo’s expected population doubling by 2047.
The U.S. Census
Cons
Pros
- Impact on Historic Areas & Property Owners: Zoning regulations can lead to demolishing old buildings, erasing history, and limiting property owners’ and developers’ control over land use.
- Increased Costs & Restrictions: Zoning may require expensive building materials and uniform designs, raising construction and rental costs while limiting design flexibility.
- Socioeconomic Consequences: Some zoning regulations favor high-end developments, potentially pricing out middle- and low-income families if mixed-use zoning is not implemented.
- Zoning & Community Input: Changes to zoning laws go through a regulatory process where both developers and residents can provide input, ensuring balanced urban development.
- Protecting Open Spaces & Residential Areas: Zoning prevents urban sprawl into forested areas, separates industries from residential zones, and regulates business locations near schools and family-friendly areas.
- Preserving Communities & Planning for the Future: Zoning helps protect historic areas, prevents displacement in low-income neighborhoods, and ensures land use aligns with a city’s long-term vision.
VS
The sphere of influence is the area surrounding a central place or market that is directly affected of influenced by the center. This can involve economics, politics, culture, or other aspects of daily life.
Disamenity Zones and Zones of Abandonment
- Disamenity Zones & Lack of Services: These are the poorest areas of a city, often disconnected from city services, lacking infrastructure, and struggling with high crime rates.
- Zones of Abandonment: When businesses and residents leave due to economic decline and crime, entire neighborhoods can become vacant, as seen in cities like Detroit and St. Louis.
- Urban Challenges & Solutions: Many cities, including Chicago, face economic and social challenges but are working to address affordability through mixed-use and public housing initiatives.
Principles of the Central Place Theory
- Three Principles of Central Place Theory: The theory includes the Market Principle, Transport Principle, and Administrative Principle, each influencing settlement locations differently while keeping the central place as the core of economic, political, and cultural influence.
- Factors Affecting Settlement Locations: Geography, transportation networks, and market demand shape where towns and cities develop. These factors also influence business locations and economic growth.
- Application to Population & Market Growth: The Central Place Theory helps explain how populations expand and how markets form, showing patterns in urban development and business placement.
Gravity Model Applied
- Gravity Model in Geography & Economy: William Reilly applied Newton’s gravitational law to cities and businesses, showing that larger cities and businesses attract people and economic activity, similar to gravitational pull in physics.
- Population & Distance in Business Location: The gravity model states that business interactions depend on population size and distance—people are more likely to visit closer businesses unless a larger city or business has a stronger pull.
- Economic & Entertainment Pull: Larger populations attract more jobs, services, and entertainment. Businesses and attractions with a stronger pull, like NFL stadiums, draw people from farther distances compared to everyday businesses like restaurants.
- Business Investment & City Growth: International companies and franchises invest in places with large populations because more people increase the likelihood of sales. This is why larger cities have more businesses, entertainment, and services, reinforcing their economic strength.
Why Tokyo Is Insanely Well Designed OBF | YouTube
Padlet
Mapping Ancient Urbanization
Objective: Students will explore the development of early cities by researching and mapping key ancient urban centers.Instructions:
- Access the Padlet (see link above).
- Choose one of the following ancient cities: Ur, Mohenjo-Daro, Thebes, Sparta, Athens, or Rome.
- Add a post on the Padlet with the following information:
- Name of the city and approximate founding date
- A short description of its geographic location (site and situation)
- The main factors that contributed to its growth
- An image or map of the city
Read and comment on at least one other post, comparing your city’s development to another.
Housing
- Housing Shortages & Urban Growth: Rapid urban growth and lack of planning contribute to housing shortages, especially as aging buildings deteriorate and new developments fail to meet demand.
- Affordability & Displacement: Many new housing projects cater to middle- and high-income residents, often displacing low-income communities without providing affordable alternatives.
- Urban Planning Challenges: City leaders struggle to balance sustainable housing initiatives with the need to accommodate both new and existing low-income residents in growing urban areas.
Mixed Land Use
- Definition and Purpose of Mixed Land Use: Mixed land use combines residential, commercial, and institutional spaces in a single area to maximize space efficiency and create convenient, walkable communities. This approach helps cities manage limited space effectively.
- Examples of Mixed Land Use: City planners design areas where businesses, restaurants, apartments, and public spaces coexist. Parks may include shops, theaters, and walking trails, creating vibrant, multifunctional environments that support social and economic growth.
- Sustainability and Urban Benefits: Mixed land use promotes resource efficiency by reducing traffic, pollution, and urban sprawl. Some projects incorporate sustainable features like water harvesting systems, cutting water use by 70% and fostering environmentally friendly development.
The purple dot represents towns. These towns will offer more goods and services than villages will, due to their distance from the city. Almost all low-order goods and services will be found in such a town. Also, higher-order goods and services will be offered here so that people from hamlets and villages nearby will visit the town instead of driving to the city (blue dot).
Ways to Reduce the Ecological Footprint
- Efforts to Reduce Ecological Footprints: Cities worldwide are working to lower their ecological footprint through recycling programs, renewable energy, and sustainable planning. Some cities, like those in tropical regions, have an easier time due to abundant natural resources, while others, like Riyadh, face greater challenges.
- Renewable Energy & Recycling Initiatives: Cities are investing in wind, solar, and hydroelectric power to reduce dependence on nonrenewable resources. Recycling programs, like those in Portland, Oregon, help minimize waste by encouraging the reuse of materials.
- Electric Vehicles & Sustainable Transportation: Many cities are promoting electric cars by providing charging stations, reducing fossil fuel use and air pollution. Advancements in renewable energy and sustainable technology continue to make these efforts more accessible and effective.
Industrial Revolution
- The Industrial Revolution began in the 18th century and spread from England to other parts of Europe, the U.S., China, and Japan, transforming economies and daily life.
- Transportation innovations like the steam engine, railroads, ships, and airplanes revolutionized the movement of goods and people, leading to the growth of cities and global trade.
- The Internet has accelerated globalization by allowing businesses to communicate, trade, and operate remotely, though its full impact is still unfolding.
High-Class Residential
This sector is located close to the CBD, stretching away from the center. The upper class is involved with the businesses downtown and can afford to live in high-priced areas. Notice that this sector veers out toward the edge of town. This is due to the established high-class housing close to the CBD. Once a high-class area is established, more of this type of housing grows next to it, eventually reaching the outer edges of town. This zone is occupied by residents who can pay to live near the CBD in nice houses or apartments. This group is full of white-collar workers. The houses in this area are more expensive because they promise to provide safety, city amenities, and proximity to the CBD.
Infilling
- Bid-Rent Theory and Urban Land Use: Property values increase closer to the city center, leading to efforts to maximize land use. Urban areas constantly evolve due to economic, political, and cultural influences.
- Cycles of Urban Development: Cities experience urbanization, suburbanization, and re-urbanization, with industrial centers often relocating, leaving behind underused spaces that can be repurposed.
- Infilling and Urban Density: Infilling transforms vacant urban spaces into new developments, modernizing cities, preventing sprawl, and increasing population density near the central business district (CBD).
Squatter Settlements Around the World
- Urban Growth & Zoning: Cities grow and must plan for sustainability through zoning laws, which regulate land use for residential, commercial, industrial, and open spaces. Zoning helps organize urban expansion efficiently.
- Types of Zoning: Cities typically have five zoning types—commercial (businesses), industrial (factories), residential (homes and apartments), open space (parks and green areas), and mixed-use (combining residential and commercial spaces).
- New Urbanism & Revitalization: Cities update zoning to fit modern trends, focusing on compact, walkable communities with mixed-use development, revitalized buildings, and transit-oriented growth.
- Zoning Changes & Approval: Developers must follow zoning laws and get city approval for changes. Proposals for rezoning are based on population trends and urban planning needs, ensuring growth aligns with a city’s vision.
Cons
Pros
- Challenges of Wind and Solar Energy: Wind turbines and solar panels require large amounts of material and land, and it can take over a decade for turbines to offset their production costs. Additionally, wind farms produce a low-level noise that can be bothersome to nearby residents.
- Environmental Impact of Dams: Dams disrupt natural water flow, reducing soil replenishment from flooding and limiting clean water access for downstream cities. They also trap toxic waste, leading to pollution and disease in dam-created reservoirs.
- Nuclear Waste Disposal Issues: Nuclear power generates waste that remains hazardous indefinitely. This waste must be carefully stored in locations that are far from human development and natural disaster-prone areas.
- Efficient Land Use for Renewable Energy: Solar and wind power can be developed in non-agricultural and sparsely populated areas, such as deserts and wind belts. Solar panels can be placed on rooftops or near undesirable locations, while wind farms can coexist with agriculture.
- Benefits of Hydroelectric Dams: Dams help control water levels, preventing devastating floods and managing droughts. They provide a stable and reliable source of hydroelectric energy while also offering flood protection for urban areas.
- Advancements in Nuclear Energy: Nuclear energy is highly efficient and produces minimal carbon emissions. Technological improvements are also reducing the amount of nuclear waste generated, making it a cleaner alternative to fossil fuels.
VS
Regional Planning
- Urban and Regional Planning: Cities must plan for industries, transportation, and space to manage urbanization efficiently. Regional planning helps direct growth to prevent traffic congestion and economic decline while balancing urban expansion with farmland preservation.
- Specialization and Economic Planning: Regional planning allows cities and towns to specialize in industries, attracting businesses and supporting economic development. Coordinated planning ensures efficient use of resources and benefits surrounding communities.
- Impact of Urbanization: While urban planning improves sustainability and economic opportunities, it can also lead to rural population decline. Cities must balance growth to minimize negative effects while fostering a functional and well-planned metropolitan area.
Urban Renewal and Gentrification
- Eminent Domain and Urban Renewal: Cities use eminent domain to take private property (with compensation) for public projects that aim to improve the economy and infrastructure.
- Gentrification and Neighborhood Change: Private companies often lead renewal efforts through gentrification, transforming low-income areas to attract wealthier residents and businesses, which can revitalize neighborhoods but also displace existing residents.
- Balancing Benefits and Challenges: While urban renewal boosts economic growth, it can negatively impact residents. Cities must plan carefully to ensure renewal projects benefit both the economy and the community.
Effects of Urban Sprawl
- Farmland Protection and Zoning Laws: As cities expand, they often take over productive farmland, forcing food production farther away. Governments have enacted zoning laws to preserve agricultural land and limit urban sprawl.
- Government Regulations on Urban Growth: Since the 1980s, regulations have been introduced to curb suburban expansion and protect farmland, recognizing the environmental impact of unchecked urban sprawl.
- Challenges of Limiting Urban Growth: While farmland protection helps conserve resources, restricting outward expansion can lead to stagnation or force cities to build upward, which is not always feasible in every urban area.
Unit 6 Test Review
Quizziz Review Class Join Code: P058835
Quizziz Class Link
Quizziz Review Link
You can review for this test independently through the Quizziz link. This will give you a chance to practice and test your knowledge on select topics. You should also review for the test on your own using the review in edio and other materials.
Outlying Business District
This area is occupied by a business district that grew up after the city grew out of the CBD. Many of these businesses cater to people who live in middle- and high-class neighborhoods. A new business district will create new nodes of business.
Modifying Site Factors in Cities
- Human Adaptation to Environment: Some areas on Earth are challenging for human habitation, but people modify their surroundings to make them livable.
- Urban Growth in Harsh Environments: Cities like Las Vegas thrive despite being in deserts, where natural resources are limited.
- Modifications for Sustainability: Infrastructure, technology, and resource management allow populations to grow in difficult environments.
Commuter Zone
This zone is on the periphery of the model, farther from the CBD. People living in this zone are considered upper class and have high incomes that enable them to afford large houses and hefty commuting fees into the city. This zone features modern facilities, including restaurants and shopping malls. Its low population density offers a higher standard of living and better quality of life.
Air and Water Quality
- Severe Water Pollution in Kolkata: The Ganges River, which flows through Kolkata, is heavily polluted due to industrial waste, textile chemicals, and poor sanitation. The lack of proper waste management has made the river toxic for humans, animals, and plants.
- Extreme Air Pollution: Kolkata's rapid development has led to some of the worst air quality in the world. Industrial emissions, car exhaust, and smog from ocean winds contribute to dangerously high levels of ammonia and ozone in the air.
- Challenges of Urban Growth & Pollution Control: As Kolkata continues to expand, pollution regulations struggle to keep up. Deforestation, lack of proper waste disposal, and unregulated industrial emissions create widespread environmental and health hazards.
Smart Growth Principles in New York City
- Urban Revitalization: East New York, Brooklyn, is undergoing smart growth initiatives, including improved transit, redevelopment of underused land, and community-driven planning.
- Economic & Social Benefits: The project integrates housing, businesses, and industrial jobs, creating opportunities for all socioeconomic classes.
- Sustainable Urban Growth: With enhanced public transit and mixed-use development, East New York aims to become a model for inclusive and efficient city expansion.
Seven Urban Models, Explained Heimler's History | YouTube
Los Angeles' Boyle Heights neighbourhood fights gentrification Al Jazeera English | YouTube
Why do ancient cities matter today? Discovering Greek & Roman Cities | YouTube
Challenges of Urban Changes Heimler's History | YouTube
Fast Facts About Baby BoomersHistory Channel | YouTube
Purpose of Zoning
- Urban Growth & Zoning: Cities grow and must plan for sustainability through zoning laws, which regulate land use for residential, commercial, industrial, and open spaces. Zoning helps organize urban expansion efficiently.
- Types of Zoning: Cities typically have five zoning types—commercial (businesses), industrial (factories), residential (homes and apartments), open space (parks and green areas), and mixed-use (combining residential and commercial spaces).
- New Urbanism & Revitalization: Cities update zoning to fit modern trends, focusing on compact, walkable communities with mixed-use development, revitalized buildings, and transit-oriented growth.
- Zoning Changes & Approval: Developers must follow zoning laws and get city approval for changes. Proposals for rezoning are based on population trends and urban planning needs, ensuring growth aligns with a city’s vision.
Administrative Principle
K=7 Principle
The administrative principle focuses on the separation of each market from the next. Each hexagon has an important center, and the surrounding area is influenced by it. In this model, the central place has a large influence over the surrounding villages or towns.
Case Study
Chicago
- Affordable Housing Shortage: As of 2021, Chicago is short 120,000 affordable housing units, affecting households earning at or below 30% of the area's median income.
- New Housing Initiatives: The city has introduced policies like the anti-deconversion ordinance to prevent multi-unit buildings from being turned into expensive single-family homes.
- Investing in Affordable Development: Projects like 43 Green and the Invest South/West initiative aim to expand affordable housing near transit hubs, while new zoning laws allow for coach houses and basement apartments to increase housing options.
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Transport Principle
K=4 Principle
The transport principle shows that the circles or populations are dotted along transportation routes. These routes connect small populations to larger ones. The ease of transport affects the location of the dots. If there is an obstacle to transport, this model is affected.
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Example of Regional Development
- Smart Growth and Urban Boundaries: Since the 1970s, Portland has used regional planning to limit urban sprawl by setting growth boundaries. This has encouraged higher-density development while preserving nearby farmland and wilderness.
- Integrated Transportation and Industrial Planning: Portland designed its public transportation system to connect residential areas with commercial centers. Industrial zones were strategically placed along rivers for trade while being separated from residential and commercial areas.
- Challenges of Regional Planning: While Portland’s growth boundaries have preserved open space and controlled sprawl, they have also driven up real estate prices, making it harder for low- and middle-income families to afford housing.
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Middle-Class Residential
This area is occupied by the blue-collar workers of the CBD and the surrounding city.
Zoning and Society
- Zoning & Public Health Benefits: Zoning was originally designed to protect public health by separating residential areas from industries, preventing pollution, and ensuring businesses and schools were conveniently located near communities.
- Unintended Social Consequences: While zoning helped organize urban growth, it also contributed to economic and racial segregation by favoring middle- and upper-class areas while limiting opportunities for lower-income and immigrant families.
- Cultural & Urban Challenges: Zoning has created a uniform city landscape, which provides a sense of place but can reduce cultural diversity. Urban planners are now working with communities to make cities more inclusive and connected.
Suburbanization
- Suburbanization is the process of suburbs growing outside central cities, which accelerated in the 1950s as returning WWII veterans started families and highways expanded.
- Economic Shift: As suburban populations grew, jobs followed, leading to a jobs-housing balance and shaping modern commuting patterns.
- Population Trends: From 1950-1980, New York’s suburbs led growth, but from 1980-2010, the city’s population rebounded. Since 2010, the city has grown slightly faster, though suburbs still dominate overall growth.
Government Subsidies
- Definition & Purpose of Subsidies: Subsidies are financial support or tax cuts provided by the government to promote economic and social policies.
- Government Support for Local Food Movement: Subsidies help strengthen connections between local farmers and urban communities through schools, restaurants, grocery stores, and farmers' markets, aligning with sustainability efforts.
- Encouraging Consumer Connections: Some subsidies assist businesses in linking local agriculture to consumers, addressing challenges in maintaining demand for locally grown food.
Sanitation
- Sanitation Challenges in Urban Growth: Rapid urbanization in Nigeria, especially in cities like Port Harcourt, has led to severe sanitation issues. Basic services like running water, sewage systems, and waste management are lacking, causing widespread health risks.
- Environmental Impact: Port Harcourt’s coastal location worsens sanitation problems, as ocean tides push waste back onshore for most of the year. Pollution from rivers accumulates, creating hazardous living conditions.
- Efforts Toward Improvement: The Nigerian government has set sanitation goals for 2030 to address these challenges. As the most populous country in Africa, Nigeria’s approach to urban sanitation could influence other developing cities across the continent.
Central Business District
This is the center (innermost zone) of the model, where the CBD is located. It has the highest land value and is home to many businesses.
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Zoning and Society
- Zoning & Public Health Benefits: Zoning was originally designed to protect public health by separating residential areas from industries, preventing pollution, and ensuring businesses and schools were conveniently located near communities.
- Unintended Social Consequences: While zoning helped organize urban growth, it also contributed to economic and racial segregation by favoring middle- and upper-class areas while limiting opportunities for lower-income and immigrant families.
- Cultural & Urban Challenges: Zoning has created a uniform city landscape, which provides a sense of place but can reduce cultural diversity. Urban planners are now working with communities to make cities more inclusive and connected.
Residential Suburb
This area is occupied by suburban families. It is usually filled with single-family homes whose yards and less-busy lifestyles are preferred to living inside the city.
Race and Economics
- Racial & Economic Segregation: Although segregation laws no longer exist, racial and economic maps still align, with wealth concentrated in White neighborhoods and poverty more common in African American communities.
- Urban Disinvestment & Inequality: As affluent families and businesses leave certain areas, tax revenue declines, leading to fewer city services and economic opportunities, particularly in cities like Chicago and Detroit.
- Crime, Incarceration & Job Barriers: High crime rates in low-income areas reduce job opportunities, and incarceration further limits economic mobility, creating a cycle of poverty and urban decline.
Sustainability
- Sustainability in Urban Planning: Cities are focusing on sustainable growth to ensure resources are used efficiently for future generations. Urban planners are addressing challenges to create livable and sustainable urban areas.
- Smart Growth Strategies: Governments use smart growth policies to control urban sprawl by regulating development and encouraging sustainable building projects. Strategies include New Urbanism, greenbelts, and slow growth initiatives.
- Slow Growth and Mixed Land Use: Slow growth policies limit urban expansion, protect farmland, and encourage development within existing city boundaries. Mixed-use areas combine residential, commercial, and recreational spaces to enhance community life.
- Sustainable Transportation and Green Spaces: Walkable streets, greenbelts, and public transportation reduce pollution and urban sprawl while improving quality of life. Pedestrian zones and efficient transit systems help create environmentally friendly cities.
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Location of Suburbs
- Suburbs & City Growth: Suburbs are located around city centers, which historically developed near railroads and waterways. The rise of cars and highways reshaped urban growth.
- Federal-Aid Highway Act (1956): Signed by President Eisenhower, this act expanded interstate highways, boosting economic activity and national trade networks.
- Highways & Suburban Expansion: Highways made commuting easier, leading to the development of suburbs near highway exits, where people lived while working in the city.
Early History of Suburbanization
- Key Factors of Suburbanization: Four major factors fueled suburban growth in the 1950s—WWII veterans’ benefits, the baby boom, White flight, and improved transportation.
- Impact of the G.I. Bill & Baby Boom: The G.I. Bill provided veterans with loans for housing and jobs, leading to suburban expansion. The baby boom increased demand for family-friendly suburban living.
- White Flight & Highways: Desegregation led many White families to move to suburbs, while the 1956 Federal-Aid Highway Act made commuting easier, further encouraging suburban growth.
Less-Developed Model Application
- Colonial and Industrial Influence: The structure of cities in less-developed countries (LDCs) is shaped by their colonial history and connections to the Industrial Revolution and historic trade routes with more-developed countries (MDCs).
- Economic Relationships: MDCs historically imported raw materials from LDCs, establishing trade routes and manufacturing centers in former colonies. While this helped integrate LDCs into global trade, they did not benefit financially as much as MDCs.
- Urban Growth Challenges: As MDCs shifted to service-based economies, LDCs took over manufacturing, leading to rapid urbanization. However, many LDC cities struggle with poor infrastructure, inadequate planning, and limited government support, making them look very different from cities in MDCs.
Application of Quantitative Data
- Quantitative Data in Mapping: Geographers use quantitative data to create maps, graphs, and charts that visualize population distribution, density, and diversity.
- Racial & Ethnic Mapping in Houston: A dot map of Houston uses color-coded dots to represent individuals by race and ethnicity, helping to identify patterns of diversity and segregation.
- Combining Data for Solutions: Quantitative census data shows where different ethnic groups live, while qualitative data (like surveys) can reveal residents' experiences, helping leaders address issues like segregation and resource allocation.
Impact of Infrastructure on Cities
- Strong infrastructure improves quality of life, providing necessities and amenities that allow citizens to focus on leisure and productivity.
- Cities with long-standing infrastructure continue to expand and innovate, ensuring sustainable growth and improved services.
- Infrastructure typically develops from the Central Business District (CBD) outward, with economic growth driving the spread of roads, utilities, and services to residential areas.
Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model
- The Multiple Nuclei Model (1945) – Developed by Chauncy Harris and Edward Ullman, this model suggests that cities develop multiple centers (nodes) of business, culture, and activity beyond the CBD. Over time, new centers form based on different needs and geographic factors.
- Urban Complexity and Ethnic Enclaves – Unlike earlier models, this one recognizes that cities evolve over time, with specialized nodes such as universities, airports, or ethnic neighborhoods forming distinct districts that reflect migration patterns and economic activity.
- Strengths and Limitations – This model better represents modern urban growth, acknowledging that cities are not uniform or centralized. However, it does not account for suburbanization, building height variations, or the dominant role of the CBD in some cities.
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Growth of Globalization
- Global trade has ancient roots, with early trade routes like the Silk Road, Indian Ocean Trade, and Trans-Saharan Trade shaping modern economic connections. Many cities that thrived along these routes remain key trade centers today.
- European colonial trade (1500–1900s) dominated global commerce, as European powers used military strength to control resources and expand their economies, linking much of the world to their empires.
- The 20th century transformed globalization, as world wars and technological advancements in transportation and communication accelerated international trade and connections.
Latin American City Model
- Griffin-Ford Latin American City Model: Geographers Ernest Griffin and Larry Ford expanded on Hoyt’s sector model in 1980 to explain the structure of Latin American cities, which were shaped by Spanish colonial influence. Their model includes sectors such as a CBD, residential areas, and markets.
- Economic and Social Divisions: Latin American cities have a distinct "zone of maturity" near the CBD, where the government invests in development. However, housing for lower-income populations remains inadequate, with the wealthy living near markets and commercial hubs, while the poor live in separate areas.
- Urban Challenges and Growth Patterns: Unlike MDCs, LDC cities lack adequate transportation and planned suburban areas. Instead, informal settlements or squatter communities form on the outskirts. The "zone of increasing density" marks the transition from low-rise to multi-story buildings as cities develop.
- São Paulo as a Case Study: São Paulo, Brazil, has had more time to develop since gaining independence in 1822 and experiencing early industrialization. While parts of the city are well-developed, rapid population growth has outpaced urban planning, leading to slums surrounding the city.
Hard Infrastructure
- Hard infrastructure includes physical systems like roads, railroads, shipping networks, water and sewage systems, electricity, telephone lines, and the Internet, all of which support economic and social functions.
- Transportation networks (roads, railroads, and shipping) connect cities, facilitate trade, and promote urban growth, as seen in historical examples like Rome’s roads and railroad-driven city expansion.
- Communication systems (telephone lines and the Internet) improve global connectivity, enabling businesses, governments, and individuals to collaborate and access information instantly.
- Utilities and services (water, sewage, and electricity) are essential for modern cities, with reliable infrastructure ensuring public health, economic stability, and overall quality of life.
Inclusionary Zoning
- Sustainable Urban Living: City planners focus on transportation, business, growth, and housing to create livable cities for all residents.
- Inclusionary Zoning: This policy requires new developments to include affordable housing for low- and middle-income residents, ensuring economic diversity within city limits.
- New Urbanism & Affordability: Inclusionary zoning supports the New Urbanism movement by promoting mixed-income housing, as seen in cities like Washington, D.C., where affordable and high-cost apartments exist in the same buildings.
White Suburbia
- Unequal Access to the G.I. Bill: While the G.I. Bill was meant to benefit all veterans, African American veterans were often denied loans due to discrimination by banks and regional politics, preventing many from moving to the suburbs.
- Segregation & Suburban Growth: Although the bill had no racial distinctions, White veterans benefited the most, while African American and immigrant families faced barriers to achieving the "American Dream."
- Lasting Impact of Discrimination: Racial segregation in suburban development led to lasting racial divisions, with the term "inner city" becoming more associated with minority communities due to discriminatory housing policies.
The range is the greatest distance customers are willing to go for a good or service.
Central Business District
This is the center (innermost zone) of the model, where the CBD is located. It has the highest land value and is home to many businesses.
Squatter Settlements
- Definition & Conditions: Squatter settlements are communities where residents have no legal right to the land they occupy; homes are often built illegally with cheap or discarded materials and lack basic infrastructure and public services.
- Location & Population: Nearly one-quarter of the world’s population lives in squatter settlements, which are typically found on the edges of major cities near undesirable or risky locations (trash dumps, rivers, railways) and have grown rapidly due to urbanization since WWII.
- Key Distinction: Unlike slums, where residents have legal land tenure, people in squatter settlements lack legal rights to the land, which limits access to water, sanitation, electricity, and other essential services as defined by the United Nations.
Situation
- Definition of Situation Factors: A place’s situation refers to its location relative to other places, influencing trade, transportation, and connectivity.
- Site vs. Situation Perspective: A river can be a site factor (physical feature) and a situation factor (proximity to trade routes). For example, Cairo’s location next to the Nile River provided water (site) and access to trade and protection (situation).
- Impact on Urbanization: Cities grow due to their situation factors, such as being near trade routes or major bodies of water, which help them become economic and cultural hubs.
Central Business District
The CBD is the center of economics and city amenities. It is a desired location for businesses.
Transportation
- Urban Renewal and Transportation: Los Angeles has expanded its metro system to connect outer areas to the Central Business District (CBD), encouraging urban renewal and gentrification along transit lines.
- Effects of Gentrification: While renewal brings safety and economic growth, it also displaces lower-income residents, increasing homelessness and spreading urban decay to other areas.
- Zoning and Affordable Housing Solutions: Cities use zoning laws to create mixed-use developments with varied housing prices and job opportunities, ensuring economic diversity in renewed areas.
- Historic Preservation in Urban Renewal: Governments and building owners can designate structures as historic to protect a city’s history while still upgrading infrastructure like electricity and water systems.
Energy Use
- Global Energy Consumption Trends: The U.S. has the highest per capita energy consumption, while energy use is rapidly increasing in growing urban areas worldwide. Most of the world still relies on nonrenewable resources like oil, coal, and wood, which emit harmful gases when burned.
- Shift Toward Renewable Energy: Renewable resources like solar, wind, and hydroelectric power do not get depleted when used and have a smaller environmental impact. Many governments are promoting renewables through legislation, taxation, and incentives to reduce reliance on fossil fuels.
- Types of Renewable and Alternative Energy: Solar energy is becoming widely accessible, with innovations like solar shingles and large-scale solar farms. Hydroelectric dams, such as China's Three Gorges Dam, produce massive amounts of energy. Wind farms, like the one in Gansu, China, harness wind power efficiently. While nuclear energy is nonrenewable, it is cleaner than coal or oil and is becoming more efficient.
Middle-Class Residential
This zone provides housing for many middle-class residents. These houses are mainly single-family residences. Many of these people work blue-collar jobs in and around the city, especially in the CBD. In the sector model, middle-class neighborhoods encompass a large part of the city. As the city grows, there are more tertiary-sector and managerial jobs that pay more money than secondary-sector jobs do. The middle class has the money to travel to work and also to own their own home.
Types of Data
- Two Types of Data: Geographers use qualitative (descriptive/narrative) and quantitative (numerical/statistical) data to analyze the world.
- Qualitative Data: Focuses on descriptions, interviews, and observations to provide context and deeper understanding.
- Quantitative Data: Uses numbers, measurements, and statistics to identify patterns and trends.
Factors Influencing Urbanization
- Key Factors of Urbanization: Urbanization is influenced by transportation, communication, population growth, migration, economics, and government. These factors attract and sustain growing populations in cities.
- Role of Transportation & Trade: Improved transportation, from railroads to modern air and shipping networks, has fueled city growth. Trade routes, like the Silk Road, historically created economic hubs that evolved into major urban centers.
- Economic & Government Influence: Job availability and economic development drive urbanization. Strong governments provide safety, infrastructure, and services, making cities more attractive for settlement.
Site
- Definition of Site Factors: Site factors describe the physical characteristics of a specific location, including landscape, climate, latitude, vegetation, water sources, and elevation.
- Natural Resources & Human Needs: Site factors provide essential resources such as water for transportation, fertile soil for agriculture, and mountains for minerals and raw materials.
- Impact on Settlement & Sustainability: A location with abundant natural resources can support a growing population by providing food, shelter, and economic opportunities.
Primate City Rule
- Primate City Definition: A primate city is a country's largest city, significantly larger than all others, often serving as the main economic, political, and cultural hub.
- Primate City Rule: A primate city has more than twice the population of the next largest city, showing an uneven distribution of urban growth.
- Global Examples & Development: Many less-developed and some more-developed countries follow this rule, as industrial growth and historical factors have concentrated population and resources in one dominant city.
Suburban Sprawl
- Suburban Sprawl & Rapid Growth: Unplanned expansion of housing and shopping centers into suburban areas is occurring rapidly, especially in the Dallas-Fort Worth area due to business growth and transportation networks. This has led to significant population increases and land development.
- Impact on Agriculture & Infrastructure: The spread of urban areas is replacing farmland with roads and houses, leading to a loss of agricultural land. Former rural areas are now considered urban, causing longer commutes and increased traffic congestion.
- Environmental Consequences: Urban sprawl contributes to air pollution, drainage issues, and the urban heat effect. Concrete and asphalt prevent water absorption, leading to increased flooding and potential land sinking.
- Social & Economic Effects: Increased transportation costs, stress from long commutes, and a loss of a sense of place affect residents' well-being. Cookie-cutter developments reduce the unique cultural and historical identity of communities.
Importance of Port Cities
- Singapore transformed from a small fishing town into a major port city, using its strategic location to become a global trade hub.
- The world’s most influential cities are port cities, located on oceans or major rivers, highlighting the importance of access to global trade.
- Urban population growth is driven by trade and location, as cities with strong port access attract people and businesses, shaping global economic power.
Creating a Strong Infrastructure
- Sweden has one of the world's best infrastructures, with major investments in roads, railroads, ports, and airports that improve accessibility and economic growth.
- Stockholm's well-developed transportation system includes advanced roads, passenger and cargo railroads, and an international airport, strengthening both local and global connections.
- Stockholm’s strategic location on the North Sea allows for significant trade with Europe, supported by a deep, well-maintained waterway and a large shipping port.
- Sweden’s strong infrastructure supports economic success, enabling efficient movement of goods, services, and people, contributing to a high standard of living.
Metacities
- Definition & Growth of Metacities: Metacities have over 20 million people and emerged in the late 20th century, with Tokyo being the first in the 1960s. Today, around ten metacities exist worldwide.
- Factors Driving Population Growth: Advances in technology, urban planning, and economic opportunities have contributed to rapid urbanization, leading to the rise of metacities.
- Improved Urban Living Conditions: Modern infrastructure, sanitation, and waste management have transformed cities from overcrowded, dirty spaces into more desirable places to live and work.
Central Place Theory
- Central Place Theory Overview: This theory explains the patterns of cities and towns, stating that one large city is surrounded by smaller towns that depend on it for goods and services. Business locations are influenced by settlement size and distribution.
- Developed by Walter Christaller (1930s): Christaller studied cities in Germany and found a pattern in their growth and distribution. His theory applies to both urban development and business placement, predicting population and economic trends.
- Market Distance and City Growth: Cities grow based on economic needs, trade, and accessibility. People will travel specific distances for goods and services, influencing market locations. Suburbanization has moved malls and stores closer to populations.
- Key Tools: Range & Threshold: These tools help geographers predict city and business locations. Range is the maximum distance people travel for goods, and threshold is the minimum customer base needed for a business to be profitable.
Urban Growth Boundaries
- Urban Growth Boundaries and Infill Development: Cities use urban growth boundaries to limit outward expansion, encouraging development within city limits through infilling, such as constructing high-rise apartments.
- Preserving Farmland and Historical Areas: Greenbelts and urban growth policies protect farmland, wilderness, and historic city centers, ensuring sustainable development without disrupting important areas.
- Global Examples of High-Density Planning: Cities like London and Hong Kong use strict boundaries and high-rise developments to maximize space efficiency, serving as models for sustainable urban planning worldwide.
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Wholesale, Light Manufacturing
This area of industry is located near the CBD and creates manufactured items that can be fully created in a single building, such as bedding, decorations, jewelry, and the like.
Southeast Asian City Model
- Multiple Nuclei Model in MDCs and LDCs: Developed in the U.S. after 1950s suburbanization, this model shows cities with multiple business and residential hubs. In LDCs, similar nodes exist, but they are less developed and influenced by outside forces like foreign businesses and squatter settlements.
- Application to Southeast Asia: T.G. McGee adapted the multiple nuclei model to Manila, demonstrating how trade and globalization shape urban development. The port zone is crucial, as increased trade with the West has driven city growth.
- Western Influence and Economic Growth: The “alien commercial zone” reflects offshoring by U.S. and European companies, fueling recent urban expansion. While trade and factories have boosted the economy, many areas remain unplanned and lack infrastructure.
- Ethnic Separation in Cities: Historically, Southeast Asia’s geography kept ethnic groups apart, but modern infrastructure has connected them. Despite urban growth, cities still have distinct ethnic neighborhoods, which are harder to distinguish in aerial views.
Aspects of a World City
- World cities drive globalization by influencing infrastructure, politics, and economics; their major stock exchanges (New York, London, Tokyo) attract businesses seeking growth and global impact.
- Cultural trends spread from world cities through hierarchical diffusion, shaping global fashion, entertainment, innovation, and education; their iconic skylines and landmarks make them internationally recognized.
- Each of the three major world cities has been the most populous at some point, with London growing during the Industrial Revolution, New York booming post-WWII, and Tokyo now the largest city with over 30 million people.
- World cities attract multinational corporations, benefiting from political influence and economic opportunities; the rise of the Internet has further expanded corporate reach, drawing more commerce and people to these cities.
Ecological Footprint
- Understanding Ecological Footprints: An ecological footprint measures the environmental impact of individuals, cities, or countries based on resource consumption, waste production, and energy use. Industrialized areas generally have the highest ecological footprints.
- Riyadh’s High Ecological Footprint: As a desert city, Riyadh must import most of its resources, and its massive oil industry contributes significantly to pollution. This makes it one of the highest-ranked cities in terms of ecological footprint.
- Reducing Environmental Impact: Cities like Riyadh can lower their ecological footprint by adopting renewable energy sources, limiting electricity use, and implementing large-scale recycling and composting programs.
- Resource Limitations: Sustainability efforts rely on new materials, often made from nonrenewable resources, while recycling old materials is costly and inefficient.
- Income Disparities: Wealthier areas benefit from sustainable growth, gaining better infrastructure and housing, while low-income neighborhoods are neglected.
- Urban Decline & Displacement: As businesses and residents relocate to redeveloped areas, older cities like Detroit and St. Louis face population decline and economic struggles.
Cons
- Safer & Cleaner Cities: New development projects promote walkability, reducing pollution and creating healthier urban environments.
- Convenient & Connected Living: Mixed-use development places homes, jobs, shopping, and entertainment close together, making daily life more accessible.
- Improved Transportation & Social Interaction: Public transit options make commuting easier while fostering interactions among diverse populations.
Pros
VS
Factories/Industry
This zone is where major roads are located to get people from outside the city to the CBD or to the other side. Also, industry is located along this zone because industry needs trade, which requires roads. This sector flows through the city. This is due to the interdependence between transportation and industry—industry thrives when transport is easy, and transport grows near industry to ensure ease of trade. The industry sector weaves through the city, following a railroad, road, or river system.
Cons
Pros
- Impact on Historic Areas & Property Owners: Zoning regulations can lead to demolishing old buildings, erasing history, and limiting property owners’ and developers’ control over land use.
- Increased Costs & Restrictions: Zoning may require expensive building materials and uniform designs, raising construction and rental costs while limiting design flexibility.
- Socioeconomic Consequences: Some zoning regulations favor high-end developments, potentially pricing out middle- and low-income families if mixed-use zoning is not implemented.
- Zoning & Community Input: Changes to zoning laws go through a regulatory process where both developers and residents can provide input, ensuring balanced urban development.
- Protecting Open Spaces & Residential Areas: Zoning prevents urban sprawl into forested areas, separates industries from residential zones, and regulates business locations near schools and family-friendly areas.
- Preserving Communities & Planning for the Future: Zoning helps protect historic areas, prevents displacement in low-income neighborhoods, and ensures land use aligns with a city’s long-term vision.
VS
- Overcrowding & Poverty: Rapid population growth can overwhelm the job market, leading to high poverty rates.
- Infrastructure Struggles: Early-stage megacities often lack proper sanitation, transportation, and housing.
- Health & Sanitation Issues: Poor infrastructure can lead to disease outbreaks and inadequate healthcare.
- Government & Financial Strain: Limited tax revenue makes it difficult to fund essential services like policing, education, and public health.
- Growing Pains: Many megacities currently struggle with balancing population growth and resource management.
Cons
- Economic Opportunities: Booming economies with many job prospects in various industries.
- Access to Goods & Services: Wide availability of healthcare, education, government services, and entertainment.
- Innovation & Infrastructure: Over time, cities develop modern transportation, sanitation, and public services.
- Quality of Life: Cities evolve to offer better healthcare, education, and cultural experiences.
- Long-Term Growth & Development: Historical examples like London show that cities can transform into thriving, efficient urban centers.
Pros
VS
The red and green colored circles represent market towns and villages. Businesses in these locations will have small thresholds and short ranges. If people in these towns need higher-order services, they will most likely travel to the city.
Case Study
Lagos
- Infrastructure Challenges: Cities in less-developed countries, like Lagos, must improve roads for transportation and electricity access to support economic growth and job creation.
- Importance of Electricity: Expanding electricity access boosts productivity, strengthens the economy, and provides opportunities for more jobs.
- Role of Education: Education is key to a successful future, helping cities develop a skilled workforce and improve overall quality of life.
Case Study
Tokyo
- Tokyo’s Urban Success: As the largest urban area in the world, Tokyo has a well-connected infrastructure, an efficient subway system, and policies that limit traffic and emissions.
- Urban Development Trends: Developed cities like Tokyo focus on reducing congestion and pollution by promoting walking, biking, and public transportation.
- Differences Between Developed & Less-Developed Megacities: Tokyo has a strong middle class and well-funded infrastructure, while Lagos is still undergoing industrial changes and lacks the tax revenue for major transportation projects.
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Redlining
- Redlining & Mortgage Denial: Surveyors marked certain neighborhoods as “risky” on maps, often because they were home to African Americans, European Jews, and other immigrants, leading banks to deny mortgage loans in these areas.
- Long-Term Impact on Communities: Originally intended to prevent financial instability after the Great Depression, redlining trapped minority families in poor conditions by preventing them from securing loans to buy homes or improve their neighborhoods.
- Legacy of Redlining: Although redlining was outlawed by the Fair Housing Act of 1968, its effects are still visible today in persistent housing inequality and economic disparities in many U.S. cities.
Inclusionary Zoning
- Sustainable Urban Living: City planners focus on transportation, business, growth, and housing to create livable cities for all residents.
- Inclusionary Zoning: This policy requires new developments to include affordable housing for low- and middle-income residents, ensuring economic diversity within city limits.
- New Urbanism & Affordability: Inclusionary zoning supports the New Urbanism movement by promoting mixed-income housing, as seen in cities like Washington, D.C., where affordable and high-cost apartments exist in the same buildings.
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Local Food Movement
- The Local Food Movement & Sustainability: Farmers' markets connect local growers with restaurants and consumers, reducing shipping costs and promoting self-reliant food networks that align with sustainability and New Urbanism.
- Community & Economic Benefits: Buying directly from farmers fosters a sense of community between urban and rural residents while eliminating middlemen, lowering costs, and ensuring fresher produce.
- Challenges from Urban Sprawl: As suburbanization increases land prices, small farmers struggle to compete with large corporations, but farmers' markets provide them with a way to sustain their livelihoods and support the local economy.
Infrastructure as a Global Concern
- Global connectivity increases the need for infrastructure, but many regions lack adequate systems to support population growth and economic development.
- Infrastructure development requires significant investment, as building and maintaining systems take time, planning, and financial resources.
- Infrastructure impacts all aspects of life, influencing economic stability, public services, and overall quality of life in both developed and developing regions.
UN: Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
Land-Use Patterns
- Suburbs as Economic Centers: Unlike traditional urban-centered economies, U.S. suburbs became hubs for jobs, travel, homeownership, and trade, leading to new classifications like edge cities, exurbs, and boomburgs.
- Types of Suburban Growth: Edge cities are economic hubs on the outskirts of urban areas (e.g., Arlington, TX), exurbs are wealthy, exclusive communities beyond suburbs, and boomburgs are rapidly growing areas with mass-produced housing (e.g., Levittown, NY).
- Planned Suburban Expansion: As suburbs grew, city planners and private developers focused on efficient suburban design, balancing economic benefits with challenges like housing uniformity and accessibility.
Role of Construction Technology in Urban Areas
- Technological Innovations and Skyscrapers: The first skyscraper was built in Chicago in 1885, using steel to maximize urban space. Innovations like elevators, cranes, and stronger concrete have allowed cities to grow upward, increasing population density.
- Engineering Advances in Urban Construction: Hydraulic cranes, reinforced concrete, and steel framing have revolutionized city skylines, enabling taller, more durable buildings that support growing urban populations.
- City Growth and Ongoing Innovation: As urban density increases, new construction methods continue to evolve, such as rapid skyscraper assembly, reflecting the constant need for efficient, high-density living and working spaces.
Working Class Zone
This area is residential only and consists of modest houses for workers whose jobs are nearby. The condition of the homes is better than in the transition zone. This area is a mixture of new and old development. Most of the people living in this zone are second-generation immigrants who moved out of the transition zone when they could afford to. There is also a large amount of rental housing available.
Site Factors Around the World
- Importance of Site Factors: People settle in areas with favorable physical characteristics, such as access to water, food, and clean air.
- Human Modifications: While natural features influence settlement, people also modify their surroundings to better meet their needs.
- Connection to Situation: Beyond site factors, a location’s situation—its connection to other places—also plays a key role in settlement patterns and urbanization.
Critical Infrastructure
- Critical infrastructure includes essential systems like health care, agriculture, water, and shelter, which sustain human life and vary between core and peripheral countries.
- Health care and agriculture are vital for survival, but disparities exist, with rural and less-developed areas often lacking hospitals and reliable food sources, leading to health crises.
- Water and shelter are fundamental needs, yet millions lack access to clean drinking water and adequate housing, particularly in developing regions, affecting overall quality of life.
High-Class Residential
This area is occupied by well-off residents who benefit from proximity to the city but live just outside the CBD.
Baby Boom
- Baby Boom (1946-1964): The baby boom was driven by returning WWII veterans and government aid, leading to a sharp increase in births.
- Suburban Migration: Growing families needed more space, prompting a move from cities to suburbs, which fueled housing, school, and shopping mall development.
- Impact on Society: The large size of the baby boom generation amplified its influence, making it a key factor in the rise of suburbanization.
Residential Zone
This zone's population is made up of the middle class, mainly families. The homes are larger, a little more expensive, and many are single family homes. The zone includes open spaces, such as parks and gardens, with large areas of residential land. People living in this zone more here searching for a better quality of life.
Local Food Movement
- The Local Food Movement & Sustainability: Farmers' markets connect local growers with restaurants and consumers, reducing shipping costs and promoting self-reliant food networks that align with sustainability and New Urbanism.
- Community & Economic Benefits: Buying directly from farmers fosters a sense of community between urban and rural residents while eliminating middlemen, lowering costs, and ensuring fresher produce.
- Challenges from Urban Sprawl: As suburbanization increases land prices, small farmers struggle to compete with large corporations, but farmers' markets provide them with a way to sustain their livelihoods and support the local economy.
Why Japan Looks the Way it Does: Zoning Life Where I'm From | YouTube
Unit 6 Test Review
Review on Quizziz or use the study materials in the APHUG Genially.
Quizziz Link
Quizziz Class Code: T957086
APHUG Genially
Unit 6: Cities and Urban Areas
HS: High School
Created on February 11, 2026
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Transcript
Unit 6
Cities and Urban Areas
Start
Unit 6
01
05
Modern Challenges of Urbanization
Introduction to Urbanization
06
02
Unit 6 Test Review
Cities: Size, Distribution and Structure
03
Density, Land Use, and Infrastructure
04
Sustainability and Data
Unit 6 Big Ideas
Topic 1: Introduction to Urbanization
6.1.1.
6.1.2.
6.1.4.
6.1.3.
Megacities and Metacities
The Origin and Influences of Urbanization
Globalization
Suburbanization
+Info
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6.1.1. The Origin and Influences of Urbanization
4. Modifying Site Factors in Cities
3. Site
2. Urbanization
1. Development of Cities
5. Site Factors Around the World
7. Factors Influencing Urbanization
6. Situation
Watch
Class Activity
6.1.2. Megacities and Metacities
3. Case Study: Lagos
2. Metacities
1. Megacities
4. Case Study: Tokyo
5. Reasons for Urban Growth
6. Pros and Cons of Megacities and Metacities
Watch
6.1.3. Suburbanization
3. History of Suburbanization
2. Early History of Suburbanization
4. Baby Boom
1. Suburbanization
5. Desegregation
6. White Suburbia
7. Location of Suburbs
8. Suburban Government
10. Pros and Cons of Suburbanization
11. Current Suburban Trends
9. Land-Use Patterns
Watch
6.1.4. Globalization
Start Here
2. Growth of Globalization
4. Importance of Port Cities
3. Industrial Revolution
1. What is Globalization?
6. Aspects of a World City
5. World Cities
In-Class Activity
Topic 2: Cities: Size, Distribution and Structure
6.2.1.
6.2.2.
6.2.4.
6.2.3.
Central Place Theory
City Size
City StructurePart 2
City StructurePart 1
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6.2.1. City Size
Start Here
3. Application of Rank-Size Rule
4. Primate City Rule
1. Gravity Model Applied
2. Rank-Size Rule
6. Negative Aspects of the Primate City Rule
5. Primate City
Watch
6.2.2. Central Place Theory
Start Here
4. Principles of the Central Place Theory
3. Central Place Theory Model
1. Central Place Theory
2. Goods and Services
5. Market Area Analysis
6. Limitations of the Central Place Theory
Watch
Info
Transport Principle (K = 4 Principle)
Administrative Principle (K = 7 Principle)
Marketing Principle (K = 3 Principle)
6.2.3. City Structure Part 1
Start Here
4. Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model
2. Burgess Concentric Zone Model
3. Hoyt Sector Model
1. City Structure
5. Galactic City Model
Watch
Class Activity
6.2.4. City Structure Part 2
Start Here
4. Southeast Asian City Model
3. Latin American City Model
1. Less-Developed Model Application
2. African City Model
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A large group of people who are united by common cultural characteristics, such as language and ethnicity, or by shared history.
Topic 3: Density, Land Use, and Infrastructure
6.3.1.
6.3.2.
Density and Land Use
Infrasructure
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6.3.1. Density and Land Use
Start Here
2. City Development
1. Cities Throughout the Ages
3. Population Growth
4. Urban vs. Rural
6. Role of Construction Technology in Urban Areas
7. History of Population Density of Cities
5. Infilling
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The location of a place relative to another place.
6.3.2. Infrastructure
Start Here
2. Hard Infrastructure
4. Critical Infrastructure
3. Soft Infrastructure
1. Infrastructure
5. Infrastructure as a Global Concern
7. Creating a Strong Infrastructure
6. Characteristics of Strong Infrastructure
8. Characteristics of Weak Infrastructure
9. Overcoming Infrastructure Challenges: Jamaica
10. Impact of Infrastructure on Cities
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The process by which a group's cultural features are altered to resemble those of another group.
Topic 4: Sustainability and Data
6.4.1.
6.4.3.
6.4.2.
Urban Sustainability Initiatives
Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Praise and Criticism
Urban Data
+Info
+Info
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6.4.1. Urban Sustainability Initiatives
Start Here
4. Mixed Land Use
2. Greenbelts
3. New Urbanism
1. Sustainability
5. Public Transportation
6. Public Transportation Difficulties
Class Activity
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The minimum number of people needed to support a service.
6.4.2. Urban Sustainability Initiatives: Praise and Criticism
Start Here
4. Smart Growth Principles in New York City
2. Case Study: Houston
1. Praise for Sustainability Initiatives
3. Walkability
7. Pros and Cons of Sustainability
5. Criticisms of Sustainability Initiatives
6. Cultural Drawbacks
Watch
Class Activity
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: An arc drawn on a map between the North and South poles.
6.4.3. Urban Data
Start Here
4. Case Study: San Francisco
3. Application of Quantitative Data
1. Types of Data
2. The Census
5. Case Study: New York City
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A boundary that separates regions in which different language usages predominate.
Topic 5: Modern Challenges of Urbanization
6.5.1.
6.5.2.
6.5.6.
6.5.3.
6.5.5.
6.5.4.
Economic and Social Challenges of Urbanization
Squatter Settlements
Responses to Urbanization
Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Urban Renewal and Gentrification
Responses to Urban Sustainability
+Info
+Info
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6.5.1. Economic and Social Challenges of Urbanization
Start Here
3. Discriminatory Practices in Housing
1. Housing
2. Blockbusting
4. Redlining
8. Disamenity Zones and Zones of Abandonment
5. Consequences of Blockbusting and Redlining
6. Segregation
7. Race and Economics
9. Case Study: Chicago
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A continuous urban complex in the northeastern United States.
6.5.3. Responses to Urbanization
Start Here
4. Pros and Cons of Zoning
3. Example of Zoning Changes
2. Inclusionary Zoning
1. Purpose of Zoning
8. Pros and Cons of the Local Food Movement
7. Government Subsidies
5. Zoning and Society
6. Local Food Movement
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: The area surrounding a city from which milk is supplied.
6.5.4. Urban Renewal and Gentrification
Start Here
2. Where Urban Renewal Occurs
3. Urban Renewal and Gentrification
4. Pros and Cons of Gentrification
1. Urban Renewal
6. Transportation
5. Gentrification in Los Angeles
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: Transfer of money by workers to people in the country from which they emigrated.
6.5.5. Challenges of Urban Sustainability
Start Here
4. Air and Water Quality
2. Sanitation
3. Climate Change
1. Suburban Sprawl
8. Pros and Cons of Cleaner Energy
6. Ways to Reduce the Ecological Footprint
7. Energy Use
5. Ecological Footprint
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A place from which an innovation originates.
6.5.6. Responses to Urban Sustainability
Start Here
4. Case Study: Britain
2. Example of Regional Development
1. Regional Planning
3. Redevelopment
5. Urban Growth Boundaries
6. Effects of Urban Sprawl
Watch
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: A map in which the projection and scale are distorted in order to convey the information of a variable.
Topic 6: Test Review
6.6.1.
Start Here
Unit 6 Review
+Info
This vocab word could be from any unit.
Definition: An approach to geography that emphasizes the relationship among social and physical phenomena in a particular study area.
Cities Throughout the Ages
Rank-Size Rule
Overcoming Infrastructure Challenges
Jamaica
The market area is the area surrounding a service that attracts customers.
Soft Infrastructure
Desegregation
Government Subsidies
Case Study
San Francisco
Cultural Drawbacks
Urban Sustainability is Hard Heimler's History | YouTube
World Cities
Reasons for Urban Growth
Cons
Pros
VS
Climate Change
Turning brownfield sites green Forestry England| YouTube
Blockbusting
Unit 6 Big Ideas
Gentrification Explained Urban Displacement Project | YouTube
Case Study: Britain
Urban InfrastructureHeimler's History | YouTube
New Urbanism
Case Study
New York City
World Cities & Globalization Explained Heimler's History | YouTube
How redlining prevented Black and Brown families from becoming home owners Harvard Kennedy School | YouTube
Urbanization: How Cities Start & Grow Heimler's History | YouTube
Consequences of Blockbusting and Redlining
Where Urban Renewal Occurs
Burgess Concentric Zone Model
Industrial Suburb
This is an industrial area located outside the city due to the need for space and a tax break.
History of Suburbanization
Cons
Pros
VS
History of Population Density of Cities
Gentrification in Los Angeles
Case Study
Houston
Criticisms of Sustainability Initiatives
Primate City
Example of Zoning Changes
9: Industry, Innovation and Infrstructure Earth Again | YouTube
Infrastructure
These lines represent the extent of the market area that the city (blue dot) or the town (purple dot) will service for higher-order goods and services. If you were to pull farther back, there would eventually be another large blue dot with a large market area.
Praise for Sustainability Initiatives
African City Model
Why Geography Matters More than Ever
Development of Cities
Central Place Theory Model
Quantitative & Qualitative Data for Urban PoliciesHeimler's History | YouTube
The hinterland is the area surrounding the central place and usually closely tied economically to the market area.
Application of Rank-Size Rule
Suburban Government
Curipod In-Class Activity
Curipod Link
City Development
Goods and Services
Characteristics of Weak Infrastructure
Low-Class Residential
This zone is occupied by the lower class, who work in industry or in the hourly wage jobs of the CBD.
Population Growth
Limitations of the Central Place Theory
What is Globalization?
Walkability
Characteristics of Strong Infrastructure
How Are Cities Organized? Crash Course | YouTube
The large blue dot is an important city. Most big businesses will choose to locate to the blue dot, or in a large city. Many of the high-range businesses and large stores are located here. This is because many businesses compete for customers, and cities have the most potential customers. Big cities are the only places where these big businesses would survive.
Segregation
Redevelopment
Example of Zoning Changes
Urban Sustainability Heimler's History | YouTube
Urban
Rural
VS
Pros
Cons
VS
Current Suburban Trends
Galactic City Model
Public Transportation Difficulties
Urbanisation and the rise of the megacity The Economist | YouTube
Low-Class Residential
This zone is home to residents who cannot pay high prices for housing. The apartments in this area are often not kept well due to the low income of many of the residents. Many of the people who live in this area work in hourly wage jobs in the CBD or in industries nearby. The low-class section is directly related to the industrial section. This is because most industrial workers do not make much money and cannot afford to move farther from this area. Transportation costs money, so poorer workers tend to live as close to work as possible.
Discriminatory Practices in Housing
City Structure
Zoning Matters: How Land-Use Policies Shape Our Lives Urban Institute | YouTube
Zone of Transition
The zone of transition is a mixture of residential and commercial. This area is adjacent to the CBD and is continuously changing as the CBD grows, as transition is in the names. The zone has a high population density, and those residing there make up the poorest part of the population and have the worst housing conditions.
Greenbelts
Urbanization
How the Census Changed America Untold History | YouTube
Marketing Principle
K=3 Principle
The marketing principle states that the market areas at a certain level of the central place hierarchy are three times bigger than the next lowest one. For example, when there are two cities, there would be six towns, 18 villages, and 54 hamlets
Effects of Urbanization Heimler's History | YouTube
Urban Renewal
For today's video, we will review it in EdPuzzle. To do so, you will need to join our class in EdPuzzle first. Class Code: aneebro
Link to Class in EdPuzzle
Heavy Manufacturing
This area is occupied by businesses that are involved in manufacturing large equipment and need a large space. This manufacturing usually produces pollution and noise, so such businesses are located on the outskirts of the city. Also, this area is located near the low-class area, where most of its workers live.
Public Transportation
Hoyt Sector Model
The threshold is the minimum number of people needed to support a service or business.
The Central Place Theory & Urban Hierarchy Mr. Sinn | YouTube
Negative Aspects of the Primate City Rule
Megacities
The Census
The U.S. Census
Cons
Pros
VS
The sphere of influence is the area surrounding a central place or market that is directly affected of influenced by the center. This can involve economics, politics, culture, or other aspects of daily life.
Disamenity Zones and Zones of Abandonment
Principles of the Central Place Theory
Gravity Model Applied
Why Tokyo Is Insanely Well Designed OBF | YouTube
Padlet
Mapping Ancient Urbanization
Objective: Students will explore the development of early cities by researching and mapping key ancient urban centers.Instructions:
- Access the Padlet (see link above).
- Choose one of the following ancient cities: Ur, Mohenjo-Daro, Thebes, Sparta, Athens, or Rome.
- Add a post on the Padlet with the following information:
- Name of the city and approximate founding date
- A short description of its geographic location (site and situation)
- The main factors that contributed to its growth
- An image or map of the city
Read and comment on at least one other post, comparing your city’s development to another.Housing
Mixed Land Use
The purple dot represents towns. These towns will offer more goods and services than villages will, due to their distance from the city. Almost all low-order goods and services will be found in such a town. Also, higher-order goods and services will be offered here so that people from hamlets and villages nearby will visit the town instead of driving to the city (blue dot).
Ways to Reduce the Ecological Footprint
Industrial Revolution
High-Class Residential
This sector is located close to the CBD, stretching away from the center. The upper class is involved with the businesses downtown and can afford to live in high-priced areas. Notice that this sector veers out toward the edge of town. This is due to the established high-class housing close to the CBD. Once a high-class area is established, more of this type of housing grows next to it, eventually reaching the outer edges of town. This zone is occupied by residents who can pay to live near the CBD in nice houses or apartments. This group is full of white-collar workers. The houses in this area are more expensive because they promise to provide safety, city amenities, and proximity to the CBD.
Infilling
Squatter Settlements Around the World
Cons
Pros
VS
Regional Planning
Urban Renewal and Gentrification
Effects of Urban Sprawl
Unit 6 Test Review
Quizziz Review Class Join Code: P058835
Quizziz Class Link
Quizziz Review Link
You can review for this test independently through the Quizziz link. This will give you a chance to practice and test your knowledge on select topics. You should also review for the test on your own using the review in edio and other materials.
Outlying Business District
This area is occupied by a business district that grew up after the city grew out of the CBD. Many of these businesses cater to people who live in middle- and high-class neighborhoods. A new business district will create new nodes of business.
Modifying Site Factors in Cities
Commuter Zone
This zone is on the periphery of the model, farther from the CBD. People living in this zone are considered upper class and have high incomes that enable them to afford large houses and hefty commuting fees into the city. This zone features modern facilities, including restaurants and shopping malls. Its low population density offers a higher standard of living and better quality of life.
Air and Water Quality
Smart Growth Principles in New York City
Seven Urban Models, Explained Heimler's History | YouTube
Los Angeles' Boyle Heights neighbourhood fights gentrification Al Jazeera English | YouTube
Why do ancient cities matter today? Discovering Greek & Roman Cities | YouTube
Challenges of Urban Changes Heimler's History | YouTube
Fast Facts About Baby BoomersHistory Channel | YouTube
Purpose of Zoning
Administrative Principle
K=7 Principle
The administrative principle focuses on the separation of each market from the next. Each hexagon has an important center, and the surrounding area is influenced by it. In this model, the central place has a large influence over the surrounding villages or towns.
Case Study
Chicago
How will the next generation of cities address the challenges of climate change Vox | YouTube
Transport Principle
K=4 Principle
The transport principle shows that the circles or populations are dotted along transportation routes. These routes connect small populations to larger ones. The ease of transport affects the location of the dots. If there is an obstacle to transport, this model is affected.
Andor's Diego Luna Shares His Personal Guide To Mexico City Condé Nast Traveler | YouTube
Example of Regional Development
Principles of New Urbanism Edu-Archs | YouTube
Middle-Class Residential
This area is occupied by the blue-collar workers of the CBD and the surrounding city.
Zoning and Society
Suburbanization
Government Subsidies
Sanitation
Central Business District
This is the center (innermost zone) of the model, where the CBD is located. It has the highest land value and is home to many businesses.
Zoning Matters: How Land-Use Policies Shape Our Lives Urban Institute | YouTube
Çatalhöyük - Uncovering #9 Go Türkiye | YouTube
Zoning and Society
Residential Suburb
This area is occupied by suburban families. It is usually filled with single-family homes whose yards and less-busy lifestyles are preferred to living inside the city.
Race and Economics
Sustainability
Discover Lagos in Nigeria with a LocalDW | YouTube
Location of Suburbs
Early History of Suburbanization
Less-Developed Model Application
Application of Quantitative Data
Impact of Infrastructure on Cities
Harris and Ullman Multiple Nuclei Model
Why Japan Looks the Way it Does: Zoning Life Where I'm From | YouTube
Growth of Globalization
Latin American City Model
Hard Infrastructure
Inclusionary Zoning
White Suburbia
The range is the greatest distance customers are willing to go for a good or service.
Central Business District
This is the center (innermost zone) of the model, where the CBD is located. It has the highest land value and is home to many businesses.
Squatter Settlements
Situation
Central Business District
The CBD is the center of economics and city amenities. It is a desired location for businesses.
Transportation
Energy Use
Middle-Class Residential
This zone provides housing for many middle-class residents. These houses are mainly single-family residences. Many of these people work blue-collar jobs in and around the city, especially in the CBD. In the sector model, middle-class neighborhoods encompass a large part of the city. As the city grows, there are more tertiary-sector and managerial jobs that pay more money than secondary-sector jobs do. The middle class has the money to travel to work and also to own their own home.
Types of Data
Factors Influencing Urbanization
Site
Primate City Rule
Suburban Sprawl
Importance of Port Cities
Creating a Strong Infrastructure
Metacities
Central Place Theory
Urban Growth Boundaries
Density & Land Use Heimler's History | YouTube
Wholesale, Light Manufacturing
This area of industry is located near the CBD and creates manufactured items that can be fully created in a single building, such as bedding, decorations, jewelry, and the like.
Southeast Asian City Model
Aspects of a World City
Ecological Footprint
Cons
Pros
VS
Factories/Industry
This zone is where major roads are located to get people from outside the city to the CBD or to the other side. Also, industry is located along this zone because industry needs trade, which requires roads. This sector flows through the city. This is due to the interdependence between transportation and industry—industry thrives when transport is easy, and transport grows near industry to ensure ease of trade. The industry sector weaves through the city, following a railroad, road, or river system.
Cons
Pros
VS
Cons
Pros
VS
The red and green colored circles represent market towns and villages. Businesses in these locations will have small thresholds and short ranges. If people in these towns need higher-order services, they will most likely travel to the city.
Case Study
Lagos
Case Study
Tokyo
What Is Urban Planning? Crash Course | YouTube
Redlining
Inclusionary Zoning
The Size and Location of Cities, Explained Heimler's History | YouTube
Local Food Movement
Infrastructure as a Global Concern
UN: Goal 9: Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation
Land-Use Patterns
Role of Construction Technology in Urban Areas
Working Class Zone
This area is residential only and consists of modest houses for workers whose jobs are nearby. The condition of the homes is better than in the transition zone. This area is a mixture of new and old development. Most of the people living in this zone are second-generation immigrants who moved out of the transition zone when they could afford to. There is also a large amount of rental housing available.
Site Factors Around the World
Critical Infrastructure
High-Class Residential
This area is occupied by well-off residents who benefit from proximity to the city but live just outside the CBD.
Baby Boom
Residential Zone
This zone's population is made up of the middle class, mainly families. The homes are larger, a little more expensive, and many are single family homes. The zone includes open spaces, such as parks and gardens, with large areas of residential land. People living in this zone more here searching for a better quality of life.
Local Food Movement
Why Japan Looks the Way it Does: Zoning Life Where I'm From | YouTube
Unit 6 Test Review
Review on Quizziz or use the study materials in the APHUG Genially.
Quizziz Link
Quizziz Class Code: T957086
APHUG Genially