The correlation between time perception and cognitive flexibility in adult bilinguals
Tetiana DovhalenkoSupervisor: Inesa Harkusha
START
Content
Sample
Apparatus
research tasks
Calculations
Results and findings
Definitions
Empirical methods
Conclusions
Scientific research apparatus
Cognitive processes of adult bilinguals
object
The correlation between the level of cognitive flexibility and the characteristics of time perception
SUBJECT
Provide a theoretical rationale and an empirical examination of the correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility and time perception in adult bilinguals
Aim
In adult bilinguals, a higher level of cognitive flexibility is positively correlated with the accuracy of subjective time perception, indicating that the higher the cognitive flexibility, the more accurately time intervals are estimated.
hypothesis
research tasks
Select and adapt methods for the empirical measurement of the studied constructs.
Summarise the theoretical approaches to the study of cognitive flexibility and the psychological perception of time.
04.
01.
Outline the specificity of bilingualism as a cognitive phenomenon and analyse its role in the development of executive functions and time perception.
Empirically investigate the correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility and the accuracy of time perception.
05.
02.
Substantiate a theoretical model of the relationship between cognitive flexibility and characteristics of time perception in adult bilinguals.
Analyse and interpret the obtained results, formulate conclusions, and outline directions for further research.
06.
03.
Definitions
Cognitive flexibility — the ability to switch quickly between rules/strategies/tasks, restructure thinking in response to changes in the situation, and effectively manage attention and inhibition.
Time perception — the cognitive process of estimating, experiencing, and reproducing the duration of intervals, linked to planning and self-regulation.
Bilingualism — the regular use of two languages, involving language control and switching between language systems, which may influence executive functions and, consequently, temporal regulation.
selected set of empirical methods
LEAP-Q (Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire) to capture bilingual language experience and proficiency.
TPAQ (Time Perception Awareness Questionnaire; adaptation of MKTPS) to measure subjective time awareness.
Short Stroop test to assess interference control/inhibition (executive control).
Trail Making Test (TMT A/B) to assess processing speed and cognitive flexibility/task switching.
Time Reproduction Task (TRT) to measure behavioural time perception (accuracy/stability of reproducing time intervals).
sample
Format:
adult active bilinguals Age: 20–45 years
80
Participants completed the measures via online testing.https://timeflex.uk/
Base:
A monolingual comparison group was added, for comparison.
- Interregional higher professional school of printing and information technologies
- SurveyCircle - united research platform
Calculations
Statistics: we calculated descriptives (M, SD, min–max), tested group differences with Student’s t-tests (plus Cohen’s d), and tested interconnection using Pearson correlations.
Bilingual profile: LEAP-Q data was used to characterise bilingualism (language history, proficiency, and everyday language use) and to describe the sample’s language background.
Cognitive flexibility (TMT): we recorded completion times for TMT-A and TMT-B, then calculated the flexibility indicator B/A = TMT-B ÷ TMT-A. Based on this index, participants were grouped into high / medium / low cognitive flexibility.
Inhibitory control (Stroop): we computed mean reaction time in neutral and conflict conditions and calculated the Stroop interference index = RT(conflict) − RT(neutral).
Time reproduction (TRT): from reproduced vs target intervals we calculated accuracy (%), absolute error (seconds), bias (signed over-/underestimation), and stability (CV%).
Subjective time awareness (TPAQ): we analysed TPAQ subscales and the total score on a 0–10 scale as the subjective component of time perception.
Psychometrics: we ran exploratory factor analysis of TPAQ (principal components + Varimax), obtaining a 3-factor structure explaining 70% of variance.
Results and findings
Matrix of correlations between psychodiagnostic methods (LEAP-Q, TPAQ, Stroop, TMT, TRT)
The correlation matrix indicates that adult bilinguals with higher cognitive flexibility also show more accurate time estimation, stronger inhibitory control, and faster attentional switching, supporting the study’s hypothesis. Overall, it demonstrates an integrated cognitive system in which language experience, cognitive flexibility, and time perception are closely interconnected.
Conclusions
01
02
Theoretical analysis shows that cognitive flexibility is a core adaptive mechanism enabling effective switching between thinking strategies, language systems, and temporal frames of reference.
The results confirmed the research hypothesis, showing that greater cognitive flexibility in adult bilinguals is associated with more accurate perception and reproduction of time, consistent with current models of executive functioning.
03
04
Group differences analysis using Student’s t-test showed that lower cognitive flexibility is associated with greater time reproduction errors, biased interval estimation, and reduced temporal awareness, reflecting deficits in attentional switching and control mechanisms.
It was found that emotional factors are significantly associated with distortions in time estimation specifically in bilinguals with lower cognitive flexibility. This suggests that under conditions of insufficient executive regulation, emotional load has a stronger impact on temporal perception, reducing its accuracy.
Thank you for your Attention!
Pearson correlation coefficients between cognitive flexibility, TPAQ, and the Stroop test
Note. Groups were formed based on cognitive flexibility level using the TMT B/A index (high, medium, low). TRT accuracy (%) = percentage of correctly reproduced time intervals; TRT absolute error (s) = mean deviation from the true interval regardless of direction; TRT overestimation / underestimation (s) = mean systematic deviation from true time (positive/negative
Identifying correlations among these factors helps determine whether bilinguals’ cognitive flexibility is linked to how accurately they perceive and regulate time, clarifying the mechanisms behind planning and self-regulation in bilingual adults.
Comparison of matched Time Reproduction Task (TRT) indicators across bilingual groups (Student’s t-tests)
Note. Groups were formed based on cognitive flexibility level using the TMT B/A index (high, medium, low). TRT accuracy (%) = percentage of correctly reproduced time intervals; TRT absolute error (s) = mean deviation from the true interval regardless of direction; TRT overestimation / underestimation (s) = mean systematic deviation from true time (positive/negative
%Dispersions
Paired-samples t-test results comparing matched L1 and L2 indicators
Note. Statistically significant differences are indicated at p < .05; trends towards significance are reported at p < .10. The compared indicators are standardised according to the relevant scales (CFS, TPAQ) and are presented as means (M) and standard deviations (SD).
Stroop task results by group (M ± SD)
Note. Statistically significant differences are indicated at p < .05; trends towards significance are reported at p < .10. The compared indicators are standardised according to the relevant scales (CFS, TPAQ) and are presented as means (M) and standard deviations (SD).
Comparison of three groups on TMT A/B (M ± SD)
Note. The B/A flexibility index is the ratio of TMT-B completion time to TMT-A completion time: lower values indicate higher cognitive flexibility, whereas higher values indicate greater delay when shifting attention.
Thesis defence
Tetiana Dovhalenko
Created on January 8, 2026
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Transcript
The correlation between time perception and cognitive flexibility in adult bilinguals
Tetiana DovhalenkoSupervisor: Inesa Harkusha
START
Content
Sample
Apparatus
research tasks
Calculations
Results and findings
Definitions
Empirical methods
Conclusions
Scientific research apparatus
Cognitive processes of adult bilinguals
object
The correlation between the level of cognitive flexibility and the characteristics of time perception
SUBJECT
Provide a theoretical rationale and an empirical examination of the correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility and time perception in adult bilinguals
Aim
In adult bilinguals, a higher level of cognitive flexibility is positively correlated with the accuracy of subjective time perception, indicating that the higher the cognitive flexibility, the more accurately time intervals are estimated.
hypothesis
research tasks
Select and adapt methods for the empirical measurement of the studied constructs.
Summarise the theoretical approaches to the study of cognitive flexibility and the psychological perception of time.
04.
01.
Outline the specificity of bilingualism as a cognitive phenomenon and analyse its role in the development of executive functions and time perception.
Empirically investigate the correlation between levels of cognitive flexibility and the accuracy of time perception.
05.
02.
Substantiate a theoretical model of the relationship between cognitive flexibility and characteristics of time perception in adult bilinguals.
Analyse and interpret the obtained results, formulate conclusions, and outline directions for further research.
06.
03.
Definitions
Cognitive flexibility — the ability to switch quickly between rules/strategies/tasks, restructure thinking in response to changes in the situation, and effectively manage attention and inhibition.
Time perception — the cognitive process of estimating, experiencing, and reproducing the duration of intervals, linked to planning and self-regulation.
Bilingualism — the regular use of two languages, involving language control and switching between language systems, which may influence executive functions and, consequently, temporal regulation.
selected set of empirical methods
LEAP-Q (Language Experience and Proficiency Questionnaire) to capture bilingual language experience and proficiency.
TPAQ (Time Perception Awareness Questionnaire; adaptation of MKTPS) to measure subjective time awareness.
Short Stroop test to assess interference control/inhibition (executive control).
Trail Making Test (TMT A/B) to assess processing speed and cognitive flexibility/task switching.
Time Reproduction Task (TRT) to measure behavioural time perception (accuracy/stability of reproducing time intervals).
sample
Format:
adult active bilinguals Age: 20–45 years
80
Participants completed the measures via online testing.https://timeflex.uk/
Base:
A monolingual comparison group was added, for comparison.
Calculations
Statistics: we calculated descriptives (M, SD, min–max), tested group differences with Student’s t-tests (plus Cohen’s d), and tested interconnection using Pearson correlations.
Bilingual profile: LEAP-Q data was used to characterise bilingualism (language history, proficiency, and everyday language use) and to describe the sample’s language background.
Cognitive flexibility (TMT): we recorded completion times for TMT-A and TMT-B, then calculated the flexibility indicator B/A = TMT-B ÷ TMT-A. Based on this index, participants were grouped into high / medium / low cognitive flexibility.
Inhibitory control (Stroop): we computed mean reaction time in neutral and conflict conditions and calculated the Stroop interference index = RT(conflict) − RT(neutral).
Time reproduction (TRT): from reproduced vs target intervals we calculated accuracy (%), absolute error (seconds), bias (signed over-/underestimation), and stability (CV%).
Subjective time awareness (TPAQ): we analysed TPAQ subscales and the total score on a 0–10 scale as the subjective component of time perception.
Psychometrics: we ran exploratory factor analysis of TPAQ (principal components + Varimax), obtaining a 3-factor structure explaining 70% of variance.
Results and findings
Matrix of correlations between psychodiagnostic methods (LEAP-Q, TPAQ, Stroop, TMT, TRT)
The correlation matrix indicates that adult bilinguals with higher cognitive flexibility also show more accurate time estimation, stronger inhibitory control, and faster attentional switching, supporting the study’s hypothesis. Overall, it demonstrates an integrated cognitive system in which language experience, cognitive flexibility, and time perception are closely interconnected.
Conclusions
01
02
Theoretical analysis shows that cognitive flexibility is a core adaptive mechanism enabling effective switching between thinking strategies, language systems, and temporal frames of reference.
The results confirmed the research hypothesis, showing that greater cognitive flexibility in adult bilinguals is associated with more accurate perception and reproduction of time, consistent with current models of executive functioning.
03
04
Group differences analysis using Student’s t-test showed that lower cognitive flexibility is associated with greater time reproduction errors, biased interval estimation, and reduced temporal awareness, reflecting deficits in attentional switching and control mechanisms.
It was found that emotional factors are significantly associated with distortions in time estimation specifically in bilinguals with lower cognitive flexibility. This suggests that under conditions of insufficient executive regulation, emotional load has a stronger impact on temporal perception, reducing its accuracy.
Thank you for your Attention!
Pearson correlation coefficients between cognitive flexibility, TPAQ, and the Stroop test
Note. Groups were formed based on cognitive flexibility level using the TMT B/A index (high, medium, low). TRT accuracy (%) = percentage of correctly reproduced time intervals; TRT absolute error (s) = mean deviation from the true interval regardless of direction; TRT overestimation / underestimation (s) = mean systematic deviation from true time (positive/negative
Identifying correlations among these factors helps determine whether bilinguals’ cognitive flexibility is linked to how accurately they perceive and regulate time, clarifying the mechanisms behind planning and self-regulation in bilingual adults.
Comparison of matched Time Reproduction Task (TRT) indicators across bilingual groups (Student’s t-tests)
Note. Groups were formed based on cognitive flexibility level using the TMT B/A index (high, medium, low). TRT accuracy (%) = percentage of correctly reproduced time intervals; TRT absolute error (s) = mean deviation from the true interval regardless of direction; TRT overestimation / underestimation (s) = mean systematic deviation from true time (positive/negative
%Dispersions
Paired-samples t-test results comparing matched L1 and L2 indicators
Note. Statistically significant differences are indicated at p < .05; trends towards significance are reported at p < .10. The compared indicators are standardised according to the relevant scales (CFS, TPAQ) and are presented as means (M) and standard deviations (SD).
Stroop task results by group (M ± SD)
Note. Statistically significant differences are indicated at p < .05; trends towards significance are reported at p < .10. The compared indicators are standardised according to the relevant scales (CFS, TPAQ) and are presented as means (M) and standard deviations (SD).
Comparison of three groups on TMT A/B (M ± SD)
Note. The B/A flexibility index is the ratio of TMT-B completion time to TMT-A completion time: lower values indicate higher cognitive flexibility, whereas higher values indicate greater delay when shifting attention.