wow
Introduction to the Research Process
Searching the literature, the nature of evidence and defining the research question.
GO!
By the end of this module you should be able to: 1. Identify the key methodologies underpinning qualitative and quantitative research 2. Utilise the stages of the research process 3. Gain an understanding of philosophical terminology within the research process 4. Refine your research question
What is the nature of knowledge?
What is knowledge
Traditional Heirarchy of Evidence Model:
(and how do we know it?)
- Systematic reviews and randomized controlled trials (RCTs) are often considered to be the "gold standard" of evidence.
- This is because for example, when considering a treatment, we want to be sure it has been robustly tested.
- However there are different ways of "knowing". The modern approach to evidence is to not prize one type of knowledge over another.
- Instead we value different ways of knowing and lived experience. Your research question will help identify how you are going to know that knowledge.
So how do we know it?
We can draw on different ways of knowing
Empirical Evidence
Experential Knowing
Craft knowledge or "lived-in" experience
For example, research evidence
Theoretical Knowing
Recognising different theoretical frameworks for thinking about a problem.
How we come to know things affects what we do
It is important to think explicitly about how we come to 'know' things because it affects what we do. From a research perspective this involves the purposes that may drive our research. Our 'view' of knowledge will further effect how we approach the research question.
The Research Framework
There are 4 components to a research framework:
Conceptual - Maps key concepts, variables, and their relationships, guiding hypotheses and study direction.
Theoretical - Uses established theories or models to provide context and connect the study to broader knowledge.
Methodological - Details the specific research design and procedures for data collection.
Analytical - Outlines the tools and methods for analyzing the collected data (e.g., statistical models, coding).
Research Paradigms
These are a number of interpretative lenses through which a researcher may view the process of empirical enquiry.These have been frequently defined as entailing either a qualitative or quantitative approach. There are 4 Research Paradigms:
Reality (Ontology)
Knowledge (Epistemology)
Methodology
Knowledge is derived through empiricalobservation and experimentation.
Typically uses quantitative methods (e.g. surveys, experiments) and deductive logic.
Positivism
Believes in a single, objective reality that exists independently of the researcher and can be observed and measured.
Knowledge is gained through understanding human experiences and interpretation.
Typically uses qualitative methods (in-depth interviews, observations) and inductive logic.
Interpretivism
Believes reality is subjective and socially constructed meaning multiple realities can exist depending on individual and social context.
Knowledge is viewed as a tool to critique and transform existing power structures and social inequalities.
Often uses a mixed-methods approach including critical ethnography, participatory action research, and case studies, aiming for social change.
Critical Theory
Reality is shaped by historical, social, cultural, and political factors, and is often layered or structured by power dynamics and oppression
Pragmatism
Reality is constantly negotiated and dynamic, focused on what is practical and useful in addressing real-world problems.
Knowledge is acquired through practical application and problem-solving. It prioritizes the utility of the research over philosophical adherence to a single view of reality.
Highly flexible and often employs a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative techniques as needed to best answer the research question.
In summary - A research paradigm is the broad philosophical worldview (e.g., positivism, interpretivism) shaping why and what you study, guiding assumptions about reality (ontology) and knowledge (epistemology). A research framework, often interchangeable with design or methodology, is the specific, structured plan or blueprint for how to conduct the research, operationalizing the paradigm's beliefs into concrete steps, methods, and analysis techniques to answer the research questions.
Invariably , the choice of research approach will be informed by pragmatic as well as epistemological and ontological considerations
Data Collection and Analysis
Collecting your Data
Once you have a research question and have decided on your approach you can begin collecting your data. This may be in the form of a survey/questionnaire, an experiment/intervention followed by quantitative analysis. It is a common misconception that surveys are qualitative in nature. This is false. You may ask open ended questions and group the responses together, but it is simply gathering data in a different way.
Can we can be objective about people?
If surveys are quantitative in nature this raises the question above. Applying laws and theories to people is extremely difficult to achieve so how certain can we be that people will behave in a predicted way? In reality we can and we do (e.g. clinical trials), but only for a certain number of variables. These will be variables that we are able to measure and control. However, Interpretivists would argue that people are unique and don't all behave in the same way. In the research world this has raised the question, can we really understand people using the same tools that we use in a more controlled, positivist environment? Given that humans are each differently shaped by their social-cultural past/present, the case could be made that culture and nature are inherently different and therefore require different methods of study.
So what does this have to do with healthcare?
Interpretivist research tends to fall into the broad category of qualitative research. It is often (but not always) concerned with providing descriptive accounts - experience, phenomena, social groups. But all start with the researcher asking a question such as "what is going on?", "how is this happening?" or "what is this like?" These are different questions and have a different emphasis from quantitative research.Common qualitative methodologies and methods include:Ethnography Phenomenology Participant observation Field work Focus groups Interviews
When it comes to healthcare research we are often interested in patient experience. We want to understand causes and what we can do to help. Our own experiences will be limited in explaining another person's experience.
Key Quality Criteria in Research
In addition to having different research questions and using different methods to answer those questions, the way we use the data in quantitative and qualitative research is different.
In quantitative research we are concerned with the extent to which a study's design and execution accurately demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship, free from confounding variables or bias (internal validity) or the degree to which research findings can be generalised or applied to different populations, settings, or times outside the study's specific context (external validity). You cannot generalise qualitative data.
Internal Validity
Credibility
External Validity
Transferability
In qualitative research we are more concerned with the confidence that findings accurately represent the participants' experiences and realities, achieved through rigorous methods like thick description or triangulation (credibility) and detailed, "thick" descriptions of the context allow readers to judge if the findings can be applied to their own, similar situations (transferability) e.g. the findings of a research study conducted in one A&E department may have some degree of transferability to another A&E department.
Research as Power
Who can be the knower?We are moving towards asking patients/service users "what matters to you?" as opposed to "what's wrong with you?" However, research is not value-free. The question you want to ask as a researcher may not be the thing that is relevant to the patient/service user. We can only find this out by talking to those people. This is why participant research is so important. What purpose will this knowledge serve? There is no point in talking to participants and gathering lived experience if you are ultimately going to disregard it if it doesn't fit with your preconcieved research question. Your question should be shaped by knowledge gained from your participants with the aim to undertake the research that matters most to them, not just what you believe it to be.
Defining your Question
It is vitally important to define your research question early as it acts as a compass - providing focus, direction, and boundaries for your entire project and preventing you from getting lost in irrelevant information. There are various frameworks that can help you with such as PICO and PEO.
PEO
PICO
(Quantitative Research)
(Qualitative Research)
Population/Patient - Who are you interested in? Intervention - What is the treatment, therapy or action being considered? Comparison - What is the alternative? Placebo, standard care, etc. Outcome - What is the desired result or effect? Best for - effectiveness of interventions
Population - The group or individuals being studied Exposure - A risk factor, experience, environmental factor (not a planned treatment) Outcome - The result, experience of phenomenon of interest. Best for - understanding experiences, exploring risks
Using a framework can also help you structure your research question as well as develop exclusion and inclusion criteria
Conclusion
You should now have a solid understanding of the research process, key philosophical concepts, quantitative and qualitative methodologies, and how to refine a research question. Careful preparation is essential to successful research. By thoughtfully planning your approach and question, you can generate high-quality data that addresses real problems and improves the experiences of individuals or groups of interest.
Congratulations!
You have now reached the end of this module.
Introduction to the Research Process
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Transcript
wow
Introduction to the Research Process
Searching the literature, the nature of evidence and defining the research question.
GO!
By the end of this module you should be able to: 1. Identify the key methodologies underpinning qualitative and quantitative research 2. Utilise the stages of the research process 3. Gain an understanding of philosophical terminology within the research process 4. Refine your research question
What is the nature of knowledge?
What is knowledge
Traditional Heirarchy of Evidence Model:
(and how do we know it?)
So how do we know it?
We can draw on different ways of knowing
Empirical Evidence
Experential Knowing
Craft knowledge or "lived-in" experience
For example, research evidence
Theoretical Knowing
Recognising different theoretical frameworks for thinking about a problem.
How we come to know things affects what we do
It is important to think explicitly about how we come to 'know' things because it affects what we do. From a research perspective this involves the purposes that may drive our research. Our 'view' of knowledge will further effect how we approach the research question.
The Research Framework
There are 4 components to a research framework:
Conceptual - Maps key concepts, variables, and their relationships, guiding hypotheses and study direction.
Theoretical - Uses established theories or models to provide context and connect the study to broader knowledge.
Methodological - Details the specific research design and procedures for data collection.
Analytical - Outlines the tools and methods for analyzing the collected data (e.g., statistical models, coding).
Research Paradigms
These are a number of interpretative lenses through which a researcher may view the process of empirical enquiry.These have been frequently defined as entailing either a qualitative or quantitative approach. There are 4 Research Paradigms:
Reality (Ontology)
Knowledge (Epistemology)
Methodology
Knowledge is derived through empiricalobservation and experimentation.
Typically uses quantitative methods (e.g. surveys, experiments) and deductive logic.
Positivism
Believes in a single, objective reality that exists independently of the researcher and can be observed and measured.
Knowledge is gained through understanding human experiences and interpretation.
Typically uses qualitative methods (in-depth interviews, observations) and inductive logic.
Interpretivism
Believes reality is subjective and socially constructed meaning multiple realities can exist depending on individual and social context.
Knowledge is viewed as a tool to critique and transform existing power structures and social inequalities.
Often uses a mixed-methods approach including critical ethnography, participatory action research, and case studies, aiming for social change.
Critical Theory
Reality is shaped by historical, social, cultural, and political factors, and is often layered or structured by power dynamics and oppression
Pragmatism
Reality is constantly negotiated and dynamic, focused on what is practical and useful in addressing real-world problems.
Knowledge is acquired through practical application and problem-solving. It prioritizes the utility of the research over philosophical adherence to a single view of reality.
Highly flexible and often employs a mixed-methods approach, combining both quantitative and qualitative techniques as needed to best answer the research question.
In summary - A research paradigm is the broad philosophical worldview (e.g., positivism, interpretivism) shaping why and what you study, guiding assumptions about reality (ontology) and knowledge (epistemology). A research framework, often interchangeable with design or methodology, is the specific, structured plan or blueprint for how to conduct the research, operationalizing the paradigm's beliefs into concrete steps, methods, and analysis techniques to answer the research questions.
Invariably , the choice of research approach will be informed by pragmatic as well as epistemological and ontological considerations
Data Collection and Analysis
Collecting your Data
Once you have a research question and have decided on your approach you can begin collecting your data. This may be in the form of a survey/questionnaire, an experiment/intervention followed by quantitative analysis. It is a common misconception that surveys are qualitative in nature. This is false. You may ask open ended questions and group the responses together, but it is simply gathering data in a different way.
Can we can be objective about people?
If surveys are quantitative in nature this raises the question above. Applying laws and theories to people is extremely difficult to achieve so how certain can we be that people will behave in a predicted way? In reality we can and we do (e.g. clinical trials), but only for a certain number of variables. These will be variables that we are able to measure and control. However, Interpretivists would argue that people are unique and don't all behave in the same way. In the research world this has raised the question, can we really understand people using the same tools that we use in a more controlled, positivist environment? Given that humans are each differently shaped by their social-cultural past/present, the case could be made that culture and nature are inherently different and therefore require different methods of study.
So what does this have to do with healthcare?
Interpretivist research tends to fall into the broad category of qualitative research. It is often (but not always) concerned with providing descriptive accounts - experience, phenomena, social groups. But all start with the researcher asking a question such as "what is going on?", "how is this happening?" or "what is this like?" These are different questions and have a different emphasis from quantitative research.Common qualitative methodologies and methods include:Ethnography Phenomenology Participant observation Field work Focus groups Interviews
When it comes to healthcare research we are often interested in patient experience. We want to understand causes and what we can do to help. Our own experiences will be limited in explaining another person's experience.
Key Quality Criteria in Research
In addition to having different research questions and using different methods to answer those questions, the way we use the data in quantitative and qualitative research is different.
In quantitative research we are concerned with the extent to which a study's design and execution accurately demonstrate a cause-and-effect relationship, free from confounding variables or bias (internal validity) or the degree to which research findings can be generalised or applied to different populations, settings, or times outside the study's specific context (external validity). You cannot generalise qualitative data.
Internal Validity
Credibility
External Validity
Transferability
In qualitative research we are more concerned with the confidence that findings accurately represent the participants' experiences and realities, achieved through rigorous methods like thick description or triangulation (credibility) and detailed, "thick" descriptions of the context allow readers to judge if the findings can be applied to their own, similar situations (transferability) e.g. the findings of a research study conducted in one A&E department may have some degree of transferability to another A&E department.
Research as Power
Who can be the knower?We are moving towards asking patients/service users "what matters to you?" as opposed to "what's wrong with you?" However, research is not value-free. The question you want to ask as a researcher may not be the thing that is relevant to the patient/service user. We can only find this out by talking to those people. This is why participant research is so important. What purpose will this knowledge serve? There is no point in talking to participants and gathering lived experience if you are ultimately going to disregard it if it doesn't fit with your preconcieved research question. Your question should be shaped by knowledge gained from your participants with the aim to undertake the research that matters most to them, not just what you believe it to be.
Defining your Question
It is vitally important to define your research question early as it acts as a compass - providing focus, direction, and boundaries for your entire project and preventing you from getting lost in irrelevant information. There are various frameworks that can help you with such as PICO and PEO.
PEO
PICO
(Quantitative Research)
(Qualitative Research)
Population/Patient - Who are you interested in? Intervention - What is the treatment, therapy or action being considered? Comparison - What is the alternative? Placebo, standard care, etc. Outcome - What is the desired result or effect? Best for - effectiveness of interventions
Population - The group or individuals being studied Exposure - A risk factor, experience, environmental factor (not a planned treatment) Outcome - The result, experience of phenomenon of interest. Best for - understanding experiences, exploring risks
Using a framework can also help you structure your research question as well as develop exclusion and inclusion criteria
Conclusion
You should now have a solid understanding of the research process, key philosophical concepts, quantitative and qualitative methodologies, and how to refine a research question. Careful preparation is essential to successful research. By thoughtfully planning your approach and question, you can generate high-quality data that addresses real problems and improves the experiences of individuals or groups of interest.
Congratulations!
You have now reached the end of this module.