Unit 1
Forests are complex, living systems — not just groups of trees! In this unit, you’ll learn what makes up a forest ecosystem, how living and non-living parts interact, and how forests change over time. You’ll explore biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and even use mapping tools to study forests in your area.
Let's get started!
Unit 1 - Lesson 1
History of Washington Forests
Lesson 1: Introduction
In this lesson we will explore the historical significance of Washington's forests, understanding how they have shaped the state's identity and economy.
We'll explore five key periods that shaped them:
- Pre-1840: Indigenous forest management and early European exploration
- 1840-1883: Rise of the lumber industry
- 1883-1940: Railroad expansion and more industrialized logging
- 1940-1989: Intensive logging
- 1990 - present: Rise of environmentalism
We'll discover how culture, economy, and the environment played out in each era, and the impact they had on our forests.
Brainstorm
Before we dive in, take a few minutes to think about your experiences in the forest.
Have you visited national, state, or local parks or forests? Do you have friends or relatives working in the forest-products industry? Why is it significant that Washington is known as the "Evergreen State"?
Timeline
For details on each time period, read Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Placing Washington's Forests in Historical Context by the Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest
Indigenous forest management and early European settlement
Railroad expansion and more industrialized logging
1990 - present
Rise of environmentalism
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Pre-1840
1883-1940
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Rise of the lumber industry
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1940-1989
1840-1883
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Intensive logging
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Indigenous Forest Management
Indigenous communities in Washington have actively managed forests since time immemorial. Wood has long been used to make a wide variety of goods—such as tools, housing materials, and canoes—especially from culturally significant species like redcedar. Many communities also practiced controlled burning to increase the supply of foods like camas and berries and to improve hunting opportunities (though traditional burning was largely prohibited after colonization). Through these practices, Indigenous peoples shaped and sustained forest ecosystems that, in turn, supported their communities. (See Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest)
Interested in learning more? Watch this video to learn how the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation manage forests using commercial harvests, thinnings, and controlled burns to deal with the pressures of insect infestation, climate change, and decades of fire suppression.
Watch video
Time to read!
If you haven't already, read through Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Placing Washington's Forests in Historical Context, and think about the following questions:
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Once you've read through the history, check out the events listed on this timeline, also by the Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest.
Who was living there? How did they connect to and value forests? How were forest resources being used and/or moved around? What was the condition of the forests? Most common species? How was it managed?
Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Placing Washington's Forests in Historical Context
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by the Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest
Let's test your knowledge!
Unit 1 - Lesson 2
Forest Succession
Lesson 2: Introduction
In this lesson, we’ll identify successional stages of forests, and learn where some common Washington tree species fit in.
Forest succession is the natural process of change in a forest's plant and animal community over time. Forest ecosystems change in response to events (also called disturbances), and can be caused by environmental factors or from human activities. A few examples of these events include fire, disease, or harvesting – though there are many, many more!
Vocabulary to remember
A series of predictable changes that occur in a community over time, slow and gradual; it occurs over a period of decades to centuries, and impacts plants and animals present in the community.
Succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists.
Ecological Succession
Primary Succession
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Ecological succession in an area where natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed.
The first species to colonize an ecosystem.
Pioneer Species
Secondary Succession
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This video further explains ecological succession:
The Amoeba Sisters
Primary Succession
Succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists. It leads to the gradual establishment of biotic communities in lifeless areas.
- Rock weathers and crumbles into particles, releasing nutrients.
- Physical and chemical breakdown of rock
- Soil slowly forms
- Initial pioneer species: lichens, mosses.
- Next you will see: Herbs, grasses, low shrubs.
- Climax Community: Trees.
Copyright Shutterstock.com
Secondary Succession
Ecological succession in an area where natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed. Secondary succession may follow a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil.
Click to read more!
Copyright Shutterstock.com
Let's see what you learned!
Illustration of a Douglas-fir forest after wildfire
Image borrowed from Identifying Mature and Old Forests in Western Washington by Robert Van Pelt
Let's see what you learned!
Unit 1 - Lesson 3
Plant Biology and Anatomy
Lesson 3: Introduction
In this lesson, we will explore the diverse array of common trees and understory species found in Washington state. By delving into the distinctions and similarities among these flora, we aim to equip you with the skills to identify them with confidence!
Understanding the local vegetation is not only crucial for environmental enthusiasts but also holds significant importance for those aspiring to pursue careers in forestry. This knowledge forms the foundation for forestry professionals, enabling them to make informed decisions about sustainable forest management, conservation, and ecological preservation. So, let's embark on this journey of discovery and gain insights that directly relate to the fascinating world of forestry careers.
Let's take a moment to review some important vocabulary:
The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers.
A flattened structure of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that is attached to a stem directly or via a stalk.
The main body or stalk of a plant or shrub, typically rising above ground but occasionally under.
Roots
Stem
Leaves
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A flowering plant's unit of reproduction, capable of developing into another such plant.
The seed-bearing part of a plant, consisting of reproductive organs that are typically surrounded by brightly colored petals or sepals.
The sweet and fleshy product of a tree or other plant that contains seed and can be eaten as food.
Seeds
Flowers
Fruits
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When you think of a forest, the most common plant type that comes to mind is probably a tree!
But what is a tree?
This text by Peter Kolb of Montana State University does a great job of answering this question! In short:
- A tree is a plant with a tall structure consisting of a stem and branches to support leaves, and a root system that anchors the stem as well as procures and stores essential growth elements such as water and nutrients.
- Trees live for decades or centuries, often taller than other vegetation
- They have five trunk layers - outer bark, phloem, cambium, sapwood, heartwood
- Trees store carbon, clean air and water, and provide habitat, recreation, and wood resources
This 2-minute video by Jordan Benner of the Oregon Forest Resources Institute nicely summarizes what goes on inside of a tree!
Read more!
Watch video
Let's explore the understory!
Trees are an obvious part of the forest, but the forest understory holds some important species as well. We’ll learn more about the common Western Washington tree species over this course, but for this lesson, we will take a step back and look at plants broadly. Now, spend a few minutes looking through the plants described in the document below!
Activity
Your mission:
Unravel the mysteries of one of the plants listed in the table below, and unveil the secrets behind its survival strategies!
As you research, focus on the plant's anatomy and how each part contributes to its overall life cycle and health. Explore the primary functions of roots, stems, leaves, and more. Does each part play a crucial role during specific stages of the plant's life? How has the structure of these parts evolved to ensure the plant thrives in its unique environment?
Use the Plants of Western Washington guide from the previous slide, and click on the table to find the digital worksheet, which has links to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) plant guide for each plant.
Environmental factors also play a pivotal role in a plant's life. Investigate how the structure of these plant parts changes in response to light, temperature, or soil conditions. Uncover the plant's adaptive strategies that allow it to flourish in various surroundings. Then, answer these questions:
Questions!
Sort each plant into it's appropriate category
Trees
Invasive/non-native
Understory
Salal
Evergreen huckleberry
Sword fern
Red huckleberry
Tansy ragwort
Vine maple
Himalayan blackberry
Pacific madrone
Cascara
Western hemlock
Bigleaf maple
Red alder
Douglas-fir
Western redcedar
Scotch broom
Check your answers when you're done!
Unit 1 - Lesson 4
Plant Identification
Lesson 4: Introduction
In this lesson, we’ll explore the fascinating world of plant identification! Being able to tell different plant species apart is an incredibly useful skill—especially if you enjoy spending time outdoors. Picture yourself amidst a lush forest, where instead of merely seeing a sea of greenery, you possess the knowledge to distinguish each plant species. It’s like becoming a nature detective—a talent that’s not only handy for anyone interested in a forestry career, but also a fun way to impress your friends on a hike
Building on Lesson 3: Plant Biology and Anatomy, we'll dive deeper into the details that aid in plant identification, exploring common traits and seasonal considerations.
Brainstorm
Now, think back to what you learned about plant anatomy.
Some trees loose their leaves, which can make them more difficult to ID (deciduous trees like big leaf maple or red alder).
What parts of the plant are going to help us identify it the easiest? Are there times of year it might be harder to ID a plant than others?
Flowering or fruit season - we know a cherry, but can we ID the blossom?
Plant ID Resources
Learning to ID plants can be challenging — it take time and practice. But don't fear! For this course we are learning about the most common plants that influence forests and their management.
Then, you can revisit the links to the USDA plant guide in the Lesson 3 Plant Anatomy worksheet...
First, watch this video from the CBC Creator Network — it's a great introduction to plant identification!
Lesson 3 Worksheet
...or look at our guides for the trees and plants of western Washington!
There are also a lot of online tools to help, including apps like the Washington Wildflower Search, iNaturalist, Plantnet, and LeafSnap.
Activity
For this activity, we'll head outside!
Once you're outside, take a few minutes to look around and find three different plants. For each one, observe carefully and collect as many details as you can about its features. Below, you’ll find guidance on what types of information to record for each plant.
You can also use this guide.
Leaves
Fruit or seeds
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Habitat
Leaves
Flowers
Leaves
Leaves
If you aren't able to get outside...
Let's see what you learned!
Unit 1 - Lesson 5
Plant Adaptation
Lesson 5: Introduction
Welcome to our lesson on plant adaptations! In this exploration, we’ll take a closer look at the clever strategies local plants use to survive and thrive in their unique environments.
Washington's forests, with their cool and moist conditions, present a unique set of challenges and opportunities for plant life. Understanding how plants adapt to these conditions not only deepens our appreciation of the natural world but also offers insights into the delicate balance that sustains these ecosystems. Whether you have a casual interest in nature or are considering a career in forestry, this lesson will shed light on the ways plants in Washington's forests have adapted to their surroundings.
Brainstorm
Before we jump in, take a few minutes to think about the following questions:
What are some habits or behaviors you've developed to adapt to changes in your daily routine or environment?
What does it mean for a plant—or a person—to adapt?
How has technology influenced the way you adapt to challenges in your life? Can you think of specific examples?
Consider your approach to learning. Are there specific study habits or techniques you've adopted to adapt to different subjects or learning environments?
How do you adapt your communication style when interacting with different groups of people, such as friends, family, or teachers?
This video is an excellent introduction to plant adaptations:
Plant Adaptations by Little Green Thumbs
Let's take a moment to reflect on some common Washington tree species
Look through the USDA plant guide for each tree...
Red alder
Western hemlock
Western redcedar
Douglas-fir
Bigleaf maple
Pacific madrone
...then, start thinking about the adaptations each tree has made to survive in its environment.
Go to game
You can also put your knowledge to the test with this Northwest Tree Game!
Now, it's time to adapt what you've learned!
Create a short story, comic, or narrated slideshow about one of the six tree species we just learned about. Tell the story from the tree’s perspective, describing how this species has adapted to the various changes brought about by both natural occurrences and human disturbances. You can use photos, drawings, or text—be creative!
Your mission:
Make sure to include: where this species grows, what challenges it faces and the adaptations that help it survive. You could also include how humans or climate might be changing its environment today, and what it might need to do to adapt in the future.
Once you're done, think about how the story you made of your species compares to others. What adaptations do they have in common? What adaptations are different?
Optional: If you're particularly proud of your story, share it with NNRG! You can email it to us at outreach@nnrg.org. We would love to see your creative interpretations of adaptation.
Unit 1 - Lesson 6
Forest Ecology
Lesson 6: Introduction
Now, it is time to dive into the wonderful world of forest ecology! Forest ecology is the study of forest plants and animals and how they interact with the environment around them. Within forest ecosystems, each component, from tallest trees to microscopic organisms, contributes to the delicate balance that sustains the ecosystem. An ecosystem is an area where the living and non-living parts of the environment interact.
First, let's go over some vocabulary
Living parts of an environment, such as plants, animals, and fungi.
The study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment.
Nonliving parts of an environment, like sunlight, water, air, and soil.
A group of plants and animals that live and interact with each other in the same area.
The variety and complexity of living things in an ecosystem — from tiny microbes to huge trees.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
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Biodiversity
Community
Ecology
Biotic
Abiotic
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The way trees are arranged in a forest, both vertically (in layers like canopy and understory) and horizontally (how dense or spread out they are across the landscape).
A system made up of living things (plants, animals, bacteria) and their nonliving surroundings (climate, soil, water, and landforms).
A plant that needs direct sunlight to grow and doesn’t do well in shade.
The specific features of an area, including its climate, soil, and terrain, that influence what can live there.
A plant that can grow and survive in shaded areas with less sunlight.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Use this side of the card to provide more information about a topic. Focus on one concept. Make learning and communication more efficient.
Forest Structure
Environmental Conditions
Shade-tolerant
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Shade-intolerant
Ecosystem
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Forest structure
Forests aren’t just made up of trees growing side by side—they have structure, both horizontally and vertically. Each layer provides different habitats, helping a wide variety of plants and animals live together in the same forest.
Emergent
Horizontal structure
Canopy
Vertical structure
Understory
Forest floor
Soil
Biotic and Abiotic
The living parts of an ecosystem are called biotic, and the nonliving parts are called abiotic. Both are equally important in a forest. Abiotic factors—like sunlight, soil, water, and air—help support life by providing clean air, distributing water, cycling nutrients, and creating the habitats that plants and animals depend on.
Biotic
Abiotic
Includes: soil, rocks, water, leaf litter, air, landforms
Includes: plants, animals, fungi, microbes, lichens
Light
The terms shade tolerance and intolerance are used to describe the light needs of plants.
Shade tolerance refers to how well a plant can handle being in the shade, or simpler terms, how much sunlight it needs to grow. Special adaptations allow them to make the most of the limited sunlight they receive, such as larger leaves that catch more light.
On the other hand, shade-intolerant plants (like Douglas-fir) absolutely need direct sunlight and don't do well in shady spots. Some of their daptations include smaller leaves or other strategies for dealing with lots of sunlight.
Succession
In forests, succession describes how plant communities change over time. You’ve already learned about primary succession, which starts on bare ground with no soil, and secondary succession, which happens when soil and plants are already in place. In the Pacific Northwest, foresters usually work with forests in secondary succession, meaning the forest has regrown after a disturbance like fire or logging.
Here, succession tends to follow a predictable pattern: red alder often grows first, preparing the soil for other trees. Then Douglas-fir becomes dominant, and over time, shade-tolerant species like western redcedar and western hemlock take over. Most forests in this region are in these younger stage of succession, continuing to change as they grow.
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Unit 1 - Lesson 7
Landmapper
Lesson 7: Introduction
In this lesson, we’re going to learn how to use an online tool called LandMapper. LandMapper is a free mapping tool created by Ecotrust to help forest landowners in Oregon and Washington better understand their land. It automatically creates detailed maps using public data, showing things like soil types, topography, streams, and forest conditions such as tree type, canopy cover, and size—no special mapping skills required! The tool was designed to make forest management planning easier and faster for small forest owners and foresters.
First, let's take a moment to review some vocabulary:
A tree that sheds its leaves for part of each year.
A tree that bears cones and has needles.
Coniferous
Deciduous
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A plant that retains green leaves throughout the year.
The latitude, longitude, and altitude of a forested landscape.
Evergreen
Location
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The variety of biologic communities or ecosystems in a given area over time.
The tree species within a forest.
Forest Composition
Ecosystem Diversity
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This video from Nerdy About Nature does a great job of explaining the broad differences between coniferous and deciduous trees, and the roles they play in a functioning, healthy forest ecosystem.
Let’s get this lesson on the map!
At this point in the course, you’ve learned all about forest ecosystems and the trees and plants that live in them! So far, we’ve focused on the Pacific Northwest—but before we dive into the LandMapper tool, let’s see what this USDA map can tell us about different forest types found across the continental United States. (Click on the map to enlarge the image)
While you're looking at the map, think about the following questions:
Where are most of the forests in the United States located?
What differences do you notice between forests across the country?
How do the forests in the Pacific Northwest compare to the forests in the Northeast and Southeast?
LandMapper
Now it’s your turn to explore! Using LandMapper, you’ll pick a forested area in Washington State to analyze. It could be your neighborhood, a favorite hiking or camping spot, or just a place you’re curious about — anywhere that has trees! You’ll use LandMapper to create maps that show what makes your site unique — including its elevation, rainfall, watershed, tree types, canopy cover, and density. Think of yourself as a forest detective, uncovering how all these factors work together to shape the ecosystem.
View the digital worksheet and instructions!
Check out this Fireside Chat to see NNRG staff demonstrate how to use LandMapper.
Unit 1 - Lesson 8
Habitat Management
Lesson 8: Introduction
Forests are living ecosystems filled with plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms that all depend on each other. Every species, from the tiniest insect to the tallest tree, plays a role in keeping the forest healthy. Ecological forestry recognizes this interconnection. Instead of focusing only on cutting trees for lumber, it looks at the whole ecosystem—the wildlife that depends on it, the soil beneath it, and all of the ecological processes it supports. In this lesson, you’ll explore how biodiversity shapes forest health and learn how foresters manage forests to support wildlife habitat!
Biodiversity in Forests
The term biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. The greater the biodiversity, the stronger and more resilient the ecosystem is when facing changes like disease, climate shifts, or natural disturbances.
This Ted Ed video by Kim Preshoff explains why biodiversity is so important for maintaining healthy, resilient ecosystems.
Species in Western Washington
Now, let's get to know some of the critters near you!
View the wildlife guide here!
View the Birds of Western WA guide here!
Stewarding a Wildlife-Rich Forest
Watch NNRG’s Fireside Chat featuring Ken Bevis, a Wildlife Biologist with the Washington Department of Natural Resources. In this video, Ken explains how people can take to improve their forests for wildlife, looking in particular forest structure, stand composition, and wildlife habitat structures.
Reflection
Take a few minutes to think about what you learned this lesson, and answer the following questions:
Why is it important for forestry practices to recognize forests as ecosystems with diverse plant and animal life and multiple functions, rather than just collections of trees valued for wood production?
How does biodiversity contribute to the overall health and resilience of forest ecosystems?
How can the principles of habitat management and ecological forestry be applied in your local context or community?
Unit 1 - Lesson 9
Ethnobotany
Lesson 9: Introduction
Welcome to today's lesson on Ethnobotany in the Pacific Northwest! Ethnobotany is a field that explores the relationship between people and plants, particularly focusing on indigenous knowledge and traditional uses of plants by different cultures. In the context of the Pacific Northwest, we'll learn about the heritage of the region's Native American tribes and their profound connection with the local flora.
Since time immemorial, Pacific Northwest tribes have cultivated an intimate understanding of the plants around them. This lesson will take you on a journey through some of the diverse plant species that have played vital roles in the cultural, spiritual, and everyday lives of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest.
Ethnobotany
Brainstorm:
Before we jump in, take a few minutes to reflect on your own life or the lives of people around you. How do you or people in your life use plants day to day?
Once you're done reflecting, listen to (or read the transcript of) the Ethnoecology episode of Ologies, with Leigh Joseph.
Activity
Now it’s time to do some research of your own! You’ll use the resources in the worksheet to research a tribe in your area and learn how they’ve built relationships with local plants—how these plants have supported their way of life in the past, and how this traditional knowledge continues to guide forest stewardship today.
View the digital worksheet and instructions!
Bonus Video
If you're interested in learning more about Traditional Ecological Knowlegde, check out this interview from the Museum of Science with Robin Wall Kimmerer (author of Braiding Sweetgrass) exploring the relationship between humans and the Earth.
Unit 1 - Conclusion
You’ve explored the foundations of forest ecology — from forest structure and species interactions to biodiversity and habitat management. By understanding how ecosystems work, you now have the tools to recognize the relationships between plants, animals, and their environments — and how foresters use that knowledge to keep forests healthy for generations to come.
Now, on to Unit 2!
If you're not able to get outside, take a look at the plants in the photos below:
Answer key
Forests provide a variety of habitats for a diverse group of plants and animals to survive. The tree canopy provides shelter and food for countless creatures, creating microhabitats of interconnected life. Even a rotting log on the forest floor provides valuable habitat for a number of plants and animals.
Fruit or seeds
If present, look at size, shape, color, and how they're arranged on the plant. Some plants have distinct seed pods or capsules.
In this video, NNRG Forester Gustavo Segura Flores shares some of his mapping expertise and advice! In the first 7 minutes, Rowan Braybrook explains how to use LandMapper.
Look at the shape, arrangement and size. Leaves or needles? Is the leaf edge smooth or jagged? What shape are the leaves?
Join Rachael Tancock as she tackles the sometimes-tricky topic of plant identification. Whether you're a budding botanist or simply curious about the greenery around you, Rachael’s expert tips and easy-to-follow techniques will help you recognize and name some of the common plants in your area.
Horizontal structure
Horizontal structure refers to how trees are spaced out and how their crowns (the tops of the trees with branches and leaves) touch or overlap. When many crowns grow close together, they form the canopy, which acts like a big green roof over the forest.
This video from Washington Policy Center with cooperation from the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, sheds light on how the tribes manage forests to be more healthy using commercial harvests, thinnings, and controlled burns to deal with the pressures of insect infestation, climate change, and decades of fire suppression.
Vertical structure
Vertical structure describes how plants grow at different heights, creating layers in the forest. The tallest trees, called emergent trees, rise above everything else. Just below them is the canopy layer, where most of the tree crowns connect. Beneath that are the sub-canopy and understory layers, made up of smaller trees and young saplings. Finally, near the ground are shrubs, ferns, herbs, and grasses, which make up the forest floor.
What is the primary function of the different parts within the overall life cycle and health of the plant? Are there stages where some play a crucial role?
How would you describe this plant to someone who has never seen it?
How does the structure of the parts change in response to environmental factors such as light, temperature, or soil conditions?
How has the specific structure of the different parts evolved to help the plant thrive in its environment?
Forests provide a variety of habitats for a diverse group of plants and animals to survive. The tree canopy provides shelter and food for countless creatures, creating microhabitats of interconnected life. Even a rotting log on the forest floor provides valuable habitat for a number of plants and animals.
Scotch broom
Western hemlock
Douglas-fir
Sword fern
Salal
Red alder
Western redcedar
Red huckleberry
Vine maple
Tansy ragwort
Himalayan blackberry
Bigleaf maple
Cascara
Evergreen huckleberry
Pacific madrone
Observe the color, shape, and arrangement of the flowers. Note the number of petals, sepals, and how they're organized.
In this deeply thoughtful episode of The Big Question, Robin Wall Kimmerer, botanist, author of Braiding Sweetgrass and The Serviceberry, professor, and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, joins Eva Cornman from the Museum of Science to explore the relationship between humans and the Earth. Together, in this full interview, they dive into Indigenous worldviews, the idea of the gift economy, and how honoring reciprocity with nature can guide us toward climate solutions rooted in gratitude, not domination.
Habitat
Where does it live? A forest, grassland, wetland, roadside, garden... This provides important clues when you go to identify it.
Look at the color and texture of the stem. See if it’s woody or green/non-woody (herbaceous) .
plantsforever
This 2-minute video looks inside a tree to figure out what's going on in there. Tree biology, photosynthesis, growth rings, even a tree's role in reducing atmospheric carbon and climate change. It a lot of interesting stuff, in a tight little package. This is part of a series created by Jordan Benner of the Oregon Forest Resources Institute.
Secondary Succession
- Herbs, grasses, and low shrubs establish first when the existing vegetation is removed. Their seeds may have already been present in the soil, or could blow in from nearby populations, or they could resprout from their roots if they were already present.
- Trees well suited to pioneer open areas begin to take root, especially red alder. Red alder has nitrogen-fixing bacteria in its roots, which means that it can grow in very nitrogen-poor soils. Conifer species, including Douglas-fir, will also begin to grow but are often outpaced by the fast early growth of red alder.
- Red alder is short-lived, and after 70 years or so it begins to die. As it dies, conifers growing slowly in its shade begin to grow more rapidly.
- Eventually, the red alder will mostly die out and the site will be conifer-dominated – until the next major disturbance event.
Unit 1
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Transcript
Unit 1
Forests are complex, living systems — not just groups of trees! In this unit, you’ll learn what makes up a forest ecosystem, how living and non-living parts interact, and how forests change over time. You’ll explore biodiversity, wildlife habitat, and even use mapping tools to study forests in your area.
Let's get started!
Unit 1 - Lesson 1
History of Washington Forests
Lesson 1: Introduction
In this lesson we will explore the historical significance of Washington's forests, understanding how they have shaped the state's identity and economy.
We'll explore five key periods that shaped them:
We'll discover how culture, economy, and the environment played out in each era, and the impact they had on our forests.
Brainstorm
Before we dive in, take a few minutes to think about your experiences in the forest.
Have you visited national, state, or local parks or forests? Do you have friends or relatives working in the forest-products industry? Why is it significant that Washington is known as the "Evergreen State"?
Timeline
For details on each time period, read Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Placing Washington's Forests in Historical Context by the Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest
Indigenous forest management and early European settlement
Railroad expansion and more industrialized logging
1990 - present
Rise of environmentalism
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Pre-1840
1883-1940
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Rise of the lumber industry
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1940-1989
1840-1883
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Intensive logging
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Indigenous Forest Management
Indigenous communities in Washington have actively managed forests since time immemorial. Wood has long been used to make a wide variety of goods—such as tools, housing materials, and canoes—especially from culturally significant species like redcedar. Many communities also practiced controlled burning to increase the supply of foods like camas and berries and to improve hunting opportunities (though traditional burning was largely prohibited after colonization). Through these practices, Indigenous peoples shaped and sustained forest ecosystems that, in turn, supported their communities. (See Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest)
Interested in learning more? Watch this video to learn how the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation manage forests using commercial harvests, thinnings, and controlled burns to deal with the pressures of insect infestation, climate change, and decades of fire suppression.
Watch video
Time to read!
If you haven't already, read through Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Placing Washington's Forests in Historical Context, and think about the following questions:
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Once you've read through the history, check out the events listed on this timeline, also by the Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest.
Who was living there? How did they connect to and value forests? How were forest resources being used and/or moved around? What was the condition of the forests? Most common species? How was it managed?
Seeing the Forest for the Trees: Placing Washington's Forests in Historical Context
Title
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by the Center for the Study of the Pacific Northwest
Let's test your knowledge!
Unit 1 - Lesson 2
Forest Succession
Lesson 2: Introduction
In this lesson, we’ll identify successional stages of forests, and learn where some common Washington tree species fit in.
Forest succession is the natural process of change in a forest's plant and animal community over time. Forest ecosystems change in response to events (also called disturbances), and can be caused by environmental factors or from human activities. A few examples of these events include fire, disease, or harvesting – though there are many, many more!
Vocabulary to remember
A series of predictable changes that occur in a community over time, slow and gradual; it occurs over a period of decades to centuries, and impacts plants and animals present in the community.
Succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists.
Ecological Succession
Primary Succession
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Ecological succession in an area where natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed.
The first species to colonize an ecosystem.
Pioneer Species
Secondary Succession
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This video further explains ecological succession:
The Amoeba Sisters
Primary Succession
Succession that occurs on surfaces where no soil exists. It leads to the gradual establishment of biotic communities in lifeless areas.
Copyright Shutterstock.com
Secondary Succession
Ecological succession in an area where natural vegetation has been removed or destroyed but the soil or bottom sediment has not been destroyed. Secondary succession may follow a disturbance that destroys a community without destroying the soil.
Click to read more!
Copyright Shutterstock.com
Let's see what you learned!
Illustration of a Douglas-fir forest after wildfire
Image borrowed from Identifying Mature and Old Forests in Western Washington by Robert Van Pelt
Let's see what you learned!
Unit 1 - Lesson 3
Plant Biology and Anatomy
Lesson 3: Introduction
In this lesson, we will explore the diverse array of common trees and understory species found in Washington state. By delving into the distinctions and similarities among these flora, we aim to equip you with the skills to identify them with confidence!
Understanding the local vegetation is not only crucial for environmental enthusiasts but also holds significant importance for those aspiring to pursue careers in forestry. This knowledge forms the foundation for forestry professionals, enabling them to make informed decisions about sustainable forest management, conservation, and ecological preservation. So, let's embark on this journey of discovery and gain insights that directly relate to the fascinating world of forestry careers.
Let's take a moment to review some important vocabulary:
The part of a plant which attaches it to the ground or to a support, typically underground, conveying water and nourishment to the rest of the plant via numerous branches and fibers.
A flattened structure of a higher plant, typically green and blade-like, that is attached to a stem directly or via a stalk.
The main body or stalk of a plant or shrub, typically rising above ground but occasionally under.
Roots
Stem
Leaves
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A flowering plant's unit of reproduction, capable of developing into another such plant.
The seed-bearing part of a plant, consisting of reproductive organs that are typically surrounded by brightly colored petals or sepals.
The sweet and fleshy product of a tree or other plant that contains seed and can be eaten as food.
Seeds
Flowers
Fruits
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When you think of a forest, the most common plant type that comes to mind is probably a tree!
But what is a tree?
This text by Peter Kolb of Montana State University does a great job of answering this question! In short:
This 2-minute video by Jordan Benner of the Oregon Forest Resources Institute nicely summarizes what goes on inside of a tree!
Read more!
Watch video
Let's explore the understory!
Trees are an obvious part of the forest, but the forest understory holds some important species as well. We’ll learn more about the common Western Washington tree species over this course, but for this lesson, we will take a step back and look at plants broadly. Now, spend a few minutes looking through the plants described in the document below!
Activity
Your mission:
Unravel the mysteries of one of the plants listed in the table below, and unveil the secrets behind its survival strategies!
As you research, focus on the plant's anatomy and how each part contributes to its overall life cycle and health. Explore the primary functions of roots, stems, leaves, and more. Does each part play a crucial role during specific stages of the plant's life? How has the structure of these parts evolved to ensure the plant thrives in its unique environment?
Use the Plants of Western Washington guide from the previous slide, and click on the table to find the digital worksheet, which has links to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) plant guide for each plant.
Environmental factors also play a pivotal role in a plant's life. Investigate how the structure of these plant parts changes in response to light, temperature, or soil conditions. Uncover the plant's adaptive strategies that allow it to flourish in various surroundings. Then, answer these questions:
Questions!
Sort each plant into it's appropriate category
Trees
Invasive/non-native
Understory
Salal
Evergreen huckleberry
Sword fern
Red huckleberry
Tansy ragwort
Vine maple
Himalayan blackberry
Pacific madrone
Cascara
Western hemlock
Bigleaf maple
Red alder
Douglas-fir
Western redcedar
Scotch broom
Check your answers when you're done!
Unit 1 - Lesson 4
Plant Identification
Lesson 4: Introduction
In this lesson, we’ll explore the fascinating world of plant identification! Being able to tell different plant species apart is an incredibly useful skill—especially if you enjoy spending time outdoors. Picture yourself amidst a lush forest, where instead of merely seeing a sea of greenery, you possess the knowledge to distinguish each plant species. It’s like becoming a nature detective—a talent that’s not only handy for anyone interested in a forestry career, but also a fun way to impress your friends on a hike
Building on Lesson 3: Plant Biology and Anatomy, we'll dive deeper into the details that aid in plant identification, exploring common traits and seasonal considerations.
Brainstorm
Now, think back to what you learned about plant anatomy.
Some trees loose their leaves, which can make them more difficult to ID (deciduous trees like big leaf maple or red alder).
What parts of the plant are going to help us identify it the easiest? Are there times of year it might be harder to ID a plant than others?
Flowering or fruit season - we know a cherry, but can we ID the blossom?
Plant ID Resources
Learning to ID plants can be challenging — it take time and practice. But don't fear! For this course we are learning about the most common plants that influence forests and their management.
Then, you can revisit the links to the USDA plant guide in the Lesson 3 Plant Anatomy worksheet...
First, watch this video from the CBC Creator Network — it's a great introduction to plant identification!
Lesson 3 Worksheet
...or look at our guides for the trees and plants of western Washington!
There are also a lot of online tools to help, including apps like the Washington Wildflower Search, iNaturalist, Plantnet, and LeafSnap.
Activity
For this activity, we'll head outside!
Once you're outside, take a few minutes to look around and find three different plants. For each one, observe carefully and collect as many details as you can about its features. Below, you’ll find guidance on what types of information to record for each plant.
You can also use this guide.
Leaves
Fruit or seeds
Leaves
Stem
Leaves
Habitat
Leaves
Flowers
Leaves
Leaves
If you aren't able to get outside...
Let's see what you learned!
Unit 1 - Lesson 5
Plant Adaptation
Lesson 5: Introduction
Welcome to our lesson on plant adaptations! In this exploration, we’ll take a closer look at the clever strategies local plants use to survive and thrive in their unique environments.
Washington's forests, with their cool and moist conditions, present a unique set of challenges and opportunities for plant life. Understanding how plants adapt to these conditions not only deepens our appreciation of the natural world but also offers insights into the delicate balance that sustains these ecosystems. Whether you have a casual interest in nature or are considering a career in forestry, this lesson will shed light on the ways plants in Washington's forests have adapted to their surroundings.
Brainstorm
Before we jump in, take a few minutes to think about the following questions:
What are some habits or behaviors you've developed to adapt to changes in your daily routine or environment?
What does it mean for a plant—or a person—to adapt?
How has technology influenced the way you adapt to challenges in your life? Can you think of specific examples?
Consider your approach to learning. Are there specific study habits or techniques you've adopted to adapt to different subjects or learning environments?
How do you adapt your communication style when interacting with different groups of people, such as friends, family, or teachers?
This video is an excellent introduction to plant adaptations:
Plant Adaptations by Little Green Thumbs
Let's take a moment to reflect on some common Washington tree species
Look through the USDA plant guide for each tree...
Red alder
Western hemlock
Western redcedar
Douglas-fir
Bigleaf maple
Pacific madrone
...then, start thinking about the adaptations each tree has made to survive in its environment.
Go to game
You can also put your knowledge to the test with this Northwest Tree Game!
Now, it's time to adapt what you've learned!
Create a short story, comic, or narrated slideshow about one of the six tree species we just learned about. Tell the story from the tree’s perspective, describing how this species has adapted to the various changes brought about by both natural occurrences and human disturbances. You can use photos, drawings, or text—be creative!
Your mission:
Make sure to include: where this species grows, what challenges it faces and the adaptations that help it survive. You could also include how humans or climate might be changing its environment today, and what it might need to do to adapt in the future.
Once you're done, think about how the story you made of your species compares to others. What adaptations do they have in common? What adaptations are different?
Optional: If you're particularly proud of your story, share it with NNRG! You can email it to us at outreach@nnrg.org. We would love to see your creative interpretations of adaptation.
Unit 1 - Lesson 6
Forest Ecology
Lesson 6: Introduction
Now, it is time to dive into the wonderful world of forest ecology! Forest ecology is the study of forest plants and animals and how they interact with the environment around them. Within forest ecosystems, each component, from tallest trees to microscopic organisms, contributes to the delicate balance that sustains the ecosystem. An ecosystem is an area where the living and non-living parts of the environment interact.
First, let's go over some vocabulary
Living parts of an environment, such as plants, animals, and fungi.
The study of how living things interact with each other and with their environment.
Nonliving parts of an environment, like sunlight, water, air, and soil.
A group of plants and animals that live and interact with each other in the same area.
The variety and complexity of living things in an ecosystem — from tiny microbes to huge trees.
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Biodiversity
Community
Ecology
Biotic
Abiotic
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The way trees are arranged in a forest, both vertically (in layers like canopy and understory) and horizontally (how dense or spread out they are across the landscape).
A system made up of living things (plants, animals, bacteria) and their nonliving surroundings (climate, soil, water, and landforms).
A plant that needs direct sunlight to grow and doesn’t do well in shade.
The specific features of an area, including its climate, soil, and terrain, that influence what can live there.
A plant that can grow and survive in shaded areas with less sunlight.
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Forest Structure
Environmental Conditions
Shade-tolerant
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Shade-intolerant
Ecosystem
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Forest structure
Forests aren’t just made up of trees growing side by side—they have structure, both horizontally and vertically. Each layer provides different habitats, helping a wide variety of plants and animals live together in the same forest.
Emergent
Horizontal structure
Canopy
Vertical structure
Understory
Forest floor
Soil
Biotic and Abiotic
The living parts of an ecosystem are called biotic, and the nonliving parts are called abiotic. Both are equally important in a forest. Abiotic factors—like sunlight, soil, water, and air—help support life by providing clean air, distributing water, cycling nutrients, and creating the habitats that plants and animals depend on.
Biotic
Abiotic
Includes: soil, rocks, water, leaf litter, air, landforms
Includes: plants, animals, fungi, microbes, lichens
Light
The terms shade tolerance and intolerance are used to describe the light needs of plants.
Shade tolerance refers to how well a plant can handle being in the shade, or simpler terms, how much sunlight it needs to grow. Special adaptations allow them to make the most of the limited sunlight they receive, such as larger leaves that catch more light.
On the other hand, shade-intolerant plants (like Douglas-fir) absolutely need direct sunlight and don't do well in shady spots. Some of their daptations include smaller leaves or other strategies for dealing with lots of sunlight.
Succession
In forests, succession describes how plant communities change over time. You’ve already learned about primary succession, which starts on bare ground with no soil, and secondary succession, which happens when soil and plants are already in place. In the Pacific Northwest, foresters usually work with forests in secondary succession, meaning the forest has regrown after a disturbance like fire or logging.
Here, succession tends to follow a predictable pattern: red alder often grows first, preparing the soil for other trees. Then Douglas-fir becomes dominant, and over time, shade-tolerant species like western redcedar and western hemlock take over. Most forests in this region are in these younger stage of succession, continuing to change as they grow.
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Unit 1 - Lesson 7
Landmapper
Lesson 7: Introduction
In this lesson, we’re going to learn how to use an online tool called LandMapper. LandMapper is a free mapping tool created by Ecotrust to help forest landowners in Oregon and Washington better understand their land. It automatically creates detailed maps using public data, showing things like soil types, topography, streams, and forest conditions such as tree type, canopy cover, and size—no special mapping skills required! The tool was designed to make forest management planning easier and faster for small forest owners and foresters.
First, let's take a moment to review some vocabulary:
A tree that sheds its leaves for part of each year.
A tree that bears cones and has needles.
Coniferous
Deciduous
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A plant that retains green leaves throughout the year.
The latitude, longitude, and altitude of a forested landscape.
Evergreen
Location
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The variety of biologic communities or ecosystems in a given area over time.
The tree species within a forest.
Forest Composition
Ecosystem Diversity
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This video from Nerdy About Nature does a great job of explaining the broad differences between coniferous and deciduous trees, and the roles they play in a functioning, healthy forest ecosystem.
Let’s get this lesson on the map!
At this point in the course, you’ve learned all about forest ecosystems and the trees and plants that live in them! So far, we’ve focused on the Pacific Northwest—but before we dive into the LandMapper tool, let’s see what this USDA map can tell us about different forest types found across the continental United States. (Click on the map to enlarge the image)
While you're looking at the map, think about the following questions:
Where are most of the forests in the United States located?
What differences do you notice between forests across the country?
How do the forests in the Pacific Northwest compare to the forests in the Northeast and Southeast?
LandMapper
Now it’s your turn to explore! Using LandMapper, you’ll pick a forested area in Washington State to analyze. It could be your neighborhood, a favorite hiking or camping spot, or just a place you’re curious about — anywhere that has trees! You’ll use LandMapper to create maps that show what makes your site unique — including its elevation, rainfall, watershed, tree types, canopy cover, and density. Think of yourself as a forest detective, uncovering how all these factors work together to shape the ecosystem.
View the digital worksheet and instructions!
Check out this Fireside Chat to see NNRG staff demonstrate how to use LandMapper.
Unit 1 - Lesson 8
Habitat Management
Lesson 8: Introduction
Forests are living ecosystems filled with plants, animals, fungi, and microorganisms that all depend on each other. Every species, from the tiniest insect to the tallest tree, plays a role in keeping the forest healthy. Ecological forestry recognizes this interconnection. Instead of focusing only on cutting trees for lumber, it looks at the whole ecosystem—the wildlife that depends on it, the soil beneath it, and all of the ecological processes it supports. In this lesson, you’ll explore how biodiversity shapes forest health and learn how foresters manage forests to support wildlife habitat!
Biodiversity in Forests
The term biodiversity refers to the variety of living species on Earth, including plants, animals, bacteria, and fungi. The greater the biodiversity, the stronger and more resilient the ecosystem is when facing changes like disease, climate shifts, or natural disturbances.
This Ted Ed video by Kim Preshoff explains why biodiversity is so important for maintaining healthy, resilient ecosystems.
Species in Western Washington
Now, let's get to know some of the critters near you!
View the wildlife guide here!
View the Birds of Western WA guide here!
Stewarding a Wildlife-Rich Forest
Watch NNRG’s Fireside Chat featuring Ken Bevis, a Wildlife Biologist with the Washington Department of Natural Resources. In this video, Ken explains how people can take to improve their forests for wildlife, looking in particular forest structure, stand composition, and wildlife habitat structures.
Reflection
Take a few minutes to think about what you learned this lesson, and answer the following questions:
Why is it important for forestry practices to recognize forests as ecosystems with diverse plant and animal life and multiple functions, rather than just collections of trees valued for wood production?
How does biodiversity contribute to the overall health and resilience of forest ecosystems?
How can the principles of habitat management and ecological forestry be applied in your local context or community?
Unit 1 - Lesson 9
Ethnobotany
Lesson 9: Introduction
Welcome to today's lesson on Ethnobotany in the Pacific Northwest! Ethnobotany is a field that explores the relationship between people and plants, particularly focusing on indigenous knowledge and traditional uses of plants by different cultures. In the context of the Pacific Northwest, we'll learn about the heritage of the region's Native American tribes and their profound connection with the local flora.
Since time immemorial, Pacific Northwest tribes have cultivated an intimate understanding of the plants around them. This lesson will take you on a journey through some of the diverse plant species that have played vital roles in the cultural, spiritual, and everyday lives of the indigenous peoples of the Pacific Northwest.
Ethnobotany
Brainstorm:
Before we jump in, take a few minutes to reflect on your own life or the lives of people around you. How do you or people in your life use plants day to day?
Once you're done reflecting, listen to (or read the transcript of) the Ethnoecology episode of Ologies, with Leigh Joseph.
Activity
Now it’s time to do some research of your own! You’ll use the resources in the worksheet to research a tribe in your area and learn how they’ve built relationships with local plants—how these plants have supported their way of life in the past, and how this traditional knowledge continues to guide forest stewardship today.
View the digital worksheet and instructions!
Bonus Video
If you're interested in learning more about Traditional Ecological Knowlegde, check out this interview from the Museum of Science with Robin Wall Kimmerer (author of Braiding Sweetgrass) exploring the relationship between humans and the Earth.
Unit 1 - Conclusion
You’ve explored the foundations of forest ecology — from forest structure and species interactions to biodiversity and habitat management. By understanding how ecosystems work, you now have the tools to recognize the relationships between plants, animals, and their environments — and how foresters use that knowledge to keep forests healthy for generations to come.
Now, on to Unit 2!
If you're not able to get outside, take a look at the plants in the photos below:
Answer key
Forests provide a variety of habitats for a diverse group of plants and animals to survive. The tree canopy provides shelter and food for countless creatures, creating microhabitats of interconnected life. Even a rotting log on the forest floor provides valuable habitat for a number of plants and animals.
Fruit or seeds
If present, look at size, shape, color, and how they're arranged on the plant. Some plants have distinct seed pods or capsules.
In this video, NNRG Forester Gustavo Segura Flores shares some of his mapping expertise and advice! In the first 7 minutes, Rowan Braybrook explains how to use LandMapper.
Look at the shape, arrangement and size. Leaves or needles? Is the leaf edge smooth or jagged? What shape are the leaves?
Join Rachael Tancock as she tackles the sometimes-tricky topic of plant identification. Whether you're a budding botanist or simply curious about the greenery around you, Rachael’s expert tips and easy-to-follow techniques will help you recognize and name some of the common plants in your area.
Horizontal structure
Horizontal structure refers to how trees are spaced out and how their crowns (the tops of the trees with branches and leaves) touch or overlap. When many crowns grow close together, they form the canopy, which acts like a big green roof over the forest.
This video from Washington Policy Center with cooperation from the Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation, sheds light on how the tribes manage forests to be more healthy using commercial harvests, thinnings, and controlled burns to deal with the pressures of insect infestation, climate change, and decades of fire suppression.
Vertical structure
Vertical structure describes how plants grow at different heights, creating layers in the forest. The tallest trees, called emergent trees, rise above everything else. Just below them is the canopy layer, where most of the tree crowns connect. Beneath that are the sub-canopy and understory layers, made up of smaller trees and young saplings. Finally, near the ground are shrubs, ferns, herbs, and grasses, which make up the forest floor.
What is the primary function of the different parts within the overall life cycle and health of the plant? Are there stages where some play a crucial role?
How would you describe this plant to someone who has never seen it?
How does the structure of the parts change in response to environmental factors such as light, temperature, or soil conditions?
How has the specific structure of the different parts evolved to help the plant thrive in its environment?
Forests provide a variety of habitats for a diverse group of plants and animals to survive. The tree canopy provides shelter and food for countless creatures, creating microhabitats of interconnected life. Even a rotting log on the forest floor provides valuable habitat for a number of plants and animals.
Scotch broom
Western hemlock
Douglas-fir
Sword fern
Salal
Red alder
Western redcedar
Red huckleberry
Vine maple
Tansy ragwort
Himalayan blackberry
Bigleaf maple
Cascara
Evergreen huckleberry
Pacific madrone
Observe the color, shape, and arrangement of the flowers. Note the number of petals, sepals, and how they're organized.
In this deeply thoughtful episode of The Big Question, Robin Wall Kimmerer, botanist, author of Braiding Sweetgrass and The Serviceberry, professor, and enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, joins Eva Cornman from the Museum of Science to explore the relationship between humans and the Earth. Together, in this full interview, they dive into Indigenous worldviews, the idea of the gift economy, and how honoring reciprocity with nature can guide us toward climate solutions rooted in gratitude, not domination.
Habitat
Where does it live? A forest, grassland, wetland, roadside, garden... This provides important clues when you go to identify it.
Look at the color and texture of the stem. See if it’s woody or green/non-woody (herbaceous) .
plantsforever
This 2-minute video looks inside a tree to figure out what's going on in there. Tree biology, photosynthesis, growth rings, even a tree's role in reducing atmospheric carbon and climate change. It a lot of interesting stuff, in a tight little package. This is part of a series created by Jordan Benner of the Oregon Forest Resources Institute.
Secondary Succession