Europe in 18th century: old regime in crisis

Europe in 18th century: old regime in crisis

OLD REGIME

ENLIGHTENMENT

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

The term 'old Regime' describes the political, social, and economic system that predominated in Europe from the end of the Middle Ages (15th century) until the French Revolution (late 18th century). It was a traditional, hierarchical world based on privileges, which fell into crisis with the emergence of new Enlightenment ideas.

Three estates

Subsistence agriculture

Absolute monarchy

EUROPE IN 18th century

THE ENLIGHTENMENT

INTRODUCTION

The Enlightenment was an 18th-century intellectual movement that took place in France, England, and Germany. It was based on criticizing every premise of the old regime and defending reason against faith.

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

Absolute monarchy

-Divine Origin of Power: The king ruled by "divine right." They believed that his authority came directly from God, which is why he only had to answer to Him, not to the people. -Absolute Power: The monarch concentrated the three powers: legislative (made the laws), ejecutive (governed), and judicial. -Centralization of Power: Throughout these centuries, kings weakened the power of feudal nobles and centralized administration in the court, creating a permanent royal army and bureaucracy.

Exception: Some places, such as England after the Glorious Revolution (1688) or the United Provinces (Netherlands), developed parliamentary systems that limited the king's power.

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

Subsistence agriculture

-Agrarian Base: Between 80% and 90% of the population was engaged in agriculture. Wealth came from the land. -Seigniorial System: The land was in the hands of the nobility and the Church. The peasants, who were the majority, worked the lord's lands in exchange for paying rents and were subject to a series of feudal obligations and rights. -Low Productivity: Agricultural techniques were rudimentary (fallowing, few innovations), which led to frequent subsistence crises (famines) when harvests were poor. -Industry and Trade: The industry was primarily artisanal, organized into guilds that controlled production. Trade was still not the main engine of the economy.

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

Three estates

Society was not based on wealth, but on birth and privileges. It was almost nonexistent. One was born in a social class and died in it. The only way for a burgher (wealthy merchant) to rise was to buy offices or noble titles, or to marry a ruined noble. It was a rigid and closed pyramid, divided into three estates: Privileged groups: -Nobility: Minority group. Owners of most of the land. Their theoretical function was defense (war) and government. They did not pay taxes (or very few). They had their own laws and courts. They held the most important positions in the army, the court, and the administration. -Clergy : Minority group. Controlled education, culture, and owned large tracts of land. Their function was spiritual salvation. Like the nobility, they were exempt from taxes. They received tithes from the peasants. They had enormous ideological influence. Third Estate: The common people (peasants, bourgeoisie, artisans, serfs). They lacked privileges. They had none. They financially supported the State and the other two estates through payment of taxes.

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

1. 17th century English revolution

• English Revolution of the 17th Century: A political and social process that transformed the system of government in England.

• Triumph of Parliamentarism: Parliament was established as a key decision-making institution.

• Bill of Rights of 1689: A fundamental document that limited the power of the monarchy.

• Limited Monarchy: The king had to rely on Parliament for crucial decisions such as:IMposing taxesMaintaining a standing army

• Historical Precedent: The English model inspired the development of future democracies.

• Enlightenment Influence: Enlightenment thinkers used it as a reference to promote:

Limitation of absolute powerRespect for individual rights

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

2. The Scientific Revolution

• Discoveries in physics, chemistry, astronomy, and biology transformed the worldview.

• Figures like René Descartes (rationalism), Isaac Newton (laws of motion and gravity), and Antoine Lavoisier (modern chemistry) demonstrated the power of observation and logic.

• The Church, which traditionally explained the world through faith and dogma, lost intellectual authority.

• Enlightenment thinkers applied reason and empirical methods not only to science but also to society, politics, and human behavior, seeking progress, education, and happiness.

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

3. Skepticism in the Enlightenment

• A school of thought based on doubt and reason.
• Rejection of beliefs accepted without question.

Criticism of traditional religion.

• Superstition: opposition to irrational beliefs.
• Intolerance: condemnation of religious persecution.
• Dogmatism: refusal to accept doctrines without criticism.

Aims of Skepticism

• Promote freedom of thought.
• Defend religious tolerance.
• Separate church and state.

Prominent Thinkers

• Voltaire → advocate of tolerance.
• David Hume → questioned evidence for the existence of God.

Consequences

• Promoted freedom of conscience.
• Inspiration for modern and democratic thought

EUROPE IN 18th century

OLD REGIME IN CRISIS

4. The Enlightenment in France

• Paris = main centre of the Enlightenment
• Key philosophers: Montesquieu, Rousseau, Voltaire

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Montesquieu

• French Enlightenment thinker.

• Critic of absolutism.

• Proposed separation of powers:
• Executive, Legislative, Judicial

• Power must be divided to avoid tyranny.

• Defended liberty, justice, and rule of law.

• Inspired modern democracies and the U.S. Constitution.

Rousseau

• French Enlightenment philosopher.

• Author of The Social Contract (1762).

• Society is an agreement to be governed by the general will (the wishes of all).

• The general will seeks the common good for everyone.

• Defended direct democracy → laws must be equal for all.

• Believed in popular sovereignty → power comes from the people.

Voltaire

• French Enlightenment thinker.

• Critic of superstition and intolerance.

• Defended freedom of thought and religion.

• Promoted tolerance, reason, and justice.

• Inspired ideas of human rights.