AP World History Unit 3

Similarties in warrior leaders

Europe

Europe and Russia

Russia

Rule of Tamarlane

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Expansion of Russia

Ottoman Empire

Rise & Fall of Islamic Gunpowder Empires

European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

The Safavids

Ming=> Manchu

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Emperors Kangxi and Qianlong

Mughal India

East Asia

Decline of Gunpowder Empires

Conflicts with the West

England

Russia and France

Centralizing Control in Europe + Russia

Legitimizing Control through Religion and Art

Askia the Great and Shaj Jahan

Absolutism in France

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Control of the Russian Empire

Ottoman

Empires: Administrations

How did rulers in land-based empires legitimize and consolidate their power from 1450 to 1750?

Taxing in Russia & Ottoman + Mughal

Ottoman Empire

Centralizing Control in Ottoman Empire & east and South Asia

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Financing Empires

Taxing in Ming Dynasty

Ming Dynasty and Japan

Mughal Power in South Asia

Tributes

Protestant Reformation

Ottoman Empire

Islamic Religious Schisms

Lutheranism + Calvinism

Protestant Reformation

Safavids

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Anglicanism + reforms in Russia

Mugahl Toleration

Empires: Belief Systems

How did certain belief systems endure or change during the period from 1450-1750?

Counter + Inquisition

Empiricism

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Counter-Reformation and Wars of Religion

Royal Academy of Science in France + England

Scientific Revolution

Jesuits and Council of Trent

Success? Attack by Philip II

Keys to enlight

Conquering

Different systems

Increasing Influence

Centralized Bureaucracy

Authority Maintenance

Taxes in Mughal and Ottoman

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Taxes in Aztec and Ming collection

Religious Schism

Comparison in Land-Based Empires

By what methods did empires increase their societal and cultural influence from 1450-1750?

Armies

Religion

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Military Might

Striving for Legitimacy

Soldiers

Art

Monumental Architecture

Warfare

Europe

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Europe and Russia

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Russia

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European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

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Europe

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Europe and Russia

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Russia

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European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

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Europe

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Europe and Russia

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Russia

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European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

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Europe

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Europe and Russia

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Russia

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European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

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Europe

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Europe and Russia

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Russia

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European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

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Europe

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Europe and Russia

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Russia

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European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires Expand

How did certain land-based empire develop and expand in the period from 1450-1750?

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• Isaac Newton combined Gelileo and Keplers laws to make up gravitational force called principia and influenced sicence and mathematics

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• Ming brought back civil service exam, improved eduation, and reestablished the bureaucracy
• During later parts in Qing dynasty it became Highly corrupt with high taxes on the people => gov used harsh military control to put down rebelion against developements to maintain authority

Successors

• His successor Toyotomi Hideyoshi expanded the territory until until Todays landmass of japan
• When bro died power shifted to city of Edo ( tokyo)
• it was controlled by daimyo Tokugawa Ieyasu
• Successors would rule into mid-19th century and made the era known as Period of Great Peace
• Tokugawa Shogunate reorganized the governnace of Japan and wanted to centralizez control over what was a feudal system
• was divided into 250 hans and was each controly by a daimyo with own army
• but Tokugawa gov required daimyo maintained residence in both home terrirotyr and in the capital
• if daimyo was visiting home, family = in tokyo as hostages basically
• kept control of the daimyo under shogunate
• made them basically landlords

Consolidation in Japan

• Military leaders called shoguns ruled Japan in the emperor's name from 12th to 15th centuries
• Conflict between landholdign aristocrats called daimyo left Japan in disarray
• Each daimyo had samuai warriers and they wanted to conquer more territory => first paid rice, then gold = significant economic power
• 1st was Oda Nobunaga with muskets from portuguese traders => took over kyoto in 1568
• began to extend power and forced daimyo in lands around kyoto to submit
• unified 1/3 of japan's lands today before he was assasinated

• Akbar was the most capacble of Mughal rulers
• defeated hindu armies + extended sotuhward and westward from Delhi
• made a good gov system + fair laws
• Zamindars => paid gov officials - took care of taxation, contruction, or water supply
• Later given grants of land and parts of taxes
• Well under Akbar until later zamindars who would keep more taxes and build personal armies of soildiers and civilians loyal

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• empires like china collected tributes as a way to demand recognition of power and authority
• tributes sign of respect, submission, or allegiance
• korea was tirbutary state for china
• mexica had tributary arrangements form people they conquered
• most aztec citizens, merchants, and artisans paid taxes
• aztec official was stationed in each captial to collect tribtues form local officials
• songhai empire had tibutarys tates
• askai the great assigned governors and officials to preisde over tibutary states in the niger valley

Russia

Ottomans

• Levied taxes on peasants to back powerful military
• used tax farming=> tax farmers ( local official and private tax collectors distant from central gov) became wealthy and corrupt from skimming money from taxes - like zamindars in mughal empire
• burden of taxes would contribute to economic decline of empire

• Peter made new industries owned by the state
• Shipyards in St. Petersburg and iron mines in Ural Mountains
• Made private industries like metallury ( tech of metal products), woodwork, gunpowder, leather, paper, and mining
• brought western euro naval engineers to build ships suign western models
• industrialization failed to bring in revenue he was hoping, he raised taxes + began compelling workers to work in the shipyard => urban extension of serfdorm
• Tax on land in russia was replaced by tax on individuals = peasants more opressed

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• French gov was more absolute => directed by one source of power ( king)
• Henry IV in the house of Valois listened to Jean Bodin => who advocated for the divine right of the monarchy
• Louis XIII and his minister Cardinal Richelieu moved to better centralization of gov + develppment of system of intendants
• intendants => royal officials/ bureaucratic elites who were sent out to the provinces to execute orders of central government.
• Sometimes called tax farmers bcs they oversaw collection of various taxes
• Sun king Louis XIV => virtual dictator and watned absolute power
• lept nobles close in his palace of Versailles => made it difficult for them to act independently/plot against him

1. 1368 Ming Dynasty Overthrew the Yuan dynasty founded by Kublai Khan
2. Ming stablized east asian region for 300 years
3. 1644 powerful manchu from Manchuria seized power/ estbalished Qing Dynasty
4. Ming dynasty expanded china, and had lands in mongolia/central asia but did not hold for too longs
5. 1440s mongol armies defeated/ took the emperor prisoner.
6. Restored/expanded the great wall of china

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Askia the Great of Songhai

• Askia the great promoted islamic and made a pilgrimidge to mecca
• made Songhai the largest kingdom in its day in west Africa
• Made islam songhai's offi religion to unite empire
• use religion to legitimize his rule

Shah Jahan

• Taj Mahal built by Shah jahan as tomb for wife
• builders of Mughal india combined islam with local arts to make magnificent structures

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Similarities of Warrior leaders of Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires => were muslims lolz

1. Descended for Turkic nomads once living in central asia
2. Spoke a turkic language
3. Took advantage of power vacuums lefts by the breakup of Mongol Khantaes
4. Relied on gunpowder weapons => artillery and cannons
5. Initial success of Gunpowser empires was bcs of military power + weakness and corruption of regimes being overthrown
6. European nations fought among themselves instead of topling new powers in the east => gunpowder empires furthur expanded

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• Portraits of Qing emperors/ other high officials'
• paintings in ottoman empire
• sonsorship of artists by european rulers

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• Qing Dynasty sold limited trading privileges to European powers => confined them to Hangzhou
• British like why brah wanted more trading rights asked in 1793.
• Qianlong responded to King George III stating chinese didn't realy need British manufactured goods ( DAMN)
• Bureacracy became corrupt in later parts => high taxes on people
• in response => wanting to restore Ming dynasty too - group of peasants organized White Lotus Rebellion
• Qing gov supressed and killed around 100 k peasants :(

• Largest and most enduring of islamic empries
• founded by osman dynasty in 1300s and lasted till 1918 defeat by allites in WWI
• Ruled over Modern-day Turkey and to balakn areas of europe and parts of North Africa and Southwest Asia

Mehmed II

1. Also called the conqueror
2. Firmly established the empire's capital after besieging constantinople => fell from bombardment of ottoman cannons
3. City changed to istanbul
4. next siezed lands around west edge of black sea
5. moved to balkans in southeast europe
6. forced venice to pay him yearly tax through attacks
7. early 16th cetury added to lands in present day syria, israel, egypt, and algeria
8. once the mamluk empire declined it became the center of Islam

Suleiman I

1. Empire was at its peak
2. Captured Hungary
3. Captured Rhodes ( stronghold of christian knifhgts)
4. took control of tripoli in northern africa

• English sceinetist and philospher Francis Bacon developed empiricism and insisted on collection of data to back up a hypothesis
• challenged traditional ideas and replaced them with ones to be demonstrated with evidence

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• They build and maintained large land-based empires but they grew and rulers had to implemetn policies to solidty/ legitimize rule over vierse poplation
• conquered usually did not assimilate to life + culture of conquerers = sometimes the opposite and lead to blended cultures

• Allowed stroganovs/major russian landowners => to hire bands of peasant warriors => knkown as cossacks and fought local tribes + siverian khan.
• Controls successful/ gained control of the Volga river
• With this river, Moscow was able to trade with persia and the ottoman empire directly w/o dealing with the crimean tartar forces
• Pacifics- Russia continued to move into east siberia after Ivan IV
• Fur traders/ militias defeated indegenous tribes
• Missionaries would convert many into the eastern orthodox faith but sometimes local shamans/religious leaders/ still had influence
• 1639 => russians got to the pacific ocean = expeditions continued across pacific to Alaska

• Ottoman Empire was mostly Eastern orthodox form the byzantine empire
• area because islam after ottoman empire seiged
• Shariah was the law => islamic legal system dealing with all aspects of life, with criminal justice, marital laws, and issues of inheritance

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• Counter reformation - fight against catholic attacks
• the Inquisition => rooted out and punished nonbelievers - sometimes used torture

• Akbar tolerated all religions and provided land grants for new religion of Sikhism => developed from hinduism and may have been influenced by Islamic mysticism sufism
• Sikism was monotheistic faith and recognized ther igths of other faiths and its 5th most populat religion in the world
• akbar wanted to east tensions between hindus and muslims
• encouraged learning, art, architecture, and literature
• tried to prohibit child marriages and sati => ritual where widows suicided by jumping on funeral pyres of husbands
• died without converting hindu and islamic peoples to rleigion cal din -i ilahi ( divine faith) bro just wanted to reconcile hindusim and islam

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• Used a selection system called devshirme to staff military and gov
• system began in late 14th century and expanded in the 15th and 16th century
• Christian boys who were subjects of empires were recruited to force serve in ottoman gov
• boys ages 8-20 taken from conquered christian lands in Europe => system taken from earlier system of slavery in ottoman empire
• enslaved people considered tribute ad 1/5 of the countrie's wealth
• Islamic law prohibited enslavement of 'people of the book" => muslims and Jews so christian boys were tkan
• Christian boys tuaght skills in politics, arts, military, and high level of education
• Janissaries was a group forming leite forces in ottoman army => some were scribes, tax collectors, or diplotmats and were very loyal to sultan even though they were slave boys

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• View the table in textbook
• Rulers in islamic empires useed references to titile "caliph" successor to the profet
• divine right
• islamic conversion of songhai peole
• human sacrifice

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• Shah ismail used Shi'a Islam as a unifying force and built a base that supported his rule while denying legitiamcy to sunnis
• lots of hostilites within the ottoman empire form the strict adherence

• Babur ( descendant of Tamalane ) founded a 300 year dynasty when INdia was in disarray
• Made conquests in northern india => central gov close to suleiman in turkey
• Akbar ( babur's grandson ) =. mde grand religious and political goals
• Mughal empire under akbar was one of the richest and best governed states in the world
• Overseas trade flourished when it was peaceful - arab traders made most of the commere
• traded textiles, tropical foods, spices, and precious stones
• exchanged for gold and silver
• merchant castes could participate in banking and prodcution of handicrafts
• Castes/Jatis => strict social grouping at birth
• architectural accomplishments made as testamnets

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• Roman Catholic church faced corruptionafer the change form feudalism to centralized government
• John Wycliffe and the Lollards argued priests were unnescesssary for salvation
• Wycliffe translated parts of the Bible into english vernacular to make it avaliable to the mass believers
• Jan hus advocated for similar beliefs = burned at the stake for heresy
• Zwigli campaigned in geneva for a religion that would follow exact eachings of scriptures Ex: argued against the clibacy of clergy bcs rule of impoased long after scriptures written
• Power of church suffered during the Babylonian Captivity => papacy was in france instead of rome and french rulers had more influence over the church and could devide who could be the pope

• deep religious schism divded muslims and hindus in mughal india
• schism divided sunni otttomans and shi'a safavids
• set stage for current conflicts between countreis of iraq and iran

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• intellectuals thoguth sciences showed world was ordered and rational
• thining led to englihtenment leater

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• Successful in Catholicism was predominant in areas of western europe near Mediterranean Sea
• Charlves V abdicated as ruler of Holy Roman Empire in 1555 => left spain to son Philip II and Holy Roman Empire to Ferdinand.
• Philip took Catholic crusade to netherlands
• tried to conuer and convert England but his spanish Armada was defeated by English

France

• Catholics and Huguenots have lots of conflict
• Henry IV became catholic to unify country
• issued Edict of Nantes 5 years later allowing Huguenots ot practice
• COuples years later Louis XIV of francce made revocation

Thirty Year's war

• Catholic and Protestant conflicts made Thirty years war => led to economic catastrophe
• initially result of religious conflict within the Holy Roman empire
• War made Peace of westphalia, allowing each area of Holy Roman emprie to be either Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism, or Calvinism
• After, France, soaibm + italy was catholic
• northern europe was lutehran or calinvist
• anegland was protestatn

Wars of Religion

• Frequent wars from religious divisions
• Conflict between Lutherans and Holy Roman Empire made the 1555 Peace of Ausburg => allowed each German state to choose if its ruler was Catholic or Lutheran => citizens folllowerd king

Peter and St. Petersburg

• Peter moved russian capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg to keep watch on boyars
• Built streets on rectangular grid and built famous winter palace

French Architecture

• Palace of Versailles was political instrument
• Louis XIV entertained nobles there and kept them from conducting business other places

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Peter the Great Peter I

• Social Hierarchy was static
• Noble landowning class => boyars were at the top -them merchnats- then peasants=> serfdom

1. Defeated half-sister sophia for the trhone
2. disbanded streltsy ( boyard-led elite miltary corps + supporters of Sophia) and integrated them intro Russia's regular army
3. Was defender or Orthodoxy
4. Eventually lost support of Russian clergy over reforms
5. Reoranized russian gov by making provinces
6. Made provincial officials recieve salary
7. replaced old system of local officials " feeding off the land"
8. Crated senate to advise gov when he was away

Efforts of Ivan IV

• Boyars of Novgorod opposed the expansionist policies of Ivan IV, and IV punished them after defeating Novgorod
• Ivan confiscated the lands of boyar opps and forced them to move to Moscow => wanted to keep an eye on them like Louis XIV
• Ivan established a paramilitary force that was loyal to him called oprichnina => showed loyalty to Ivan

Peter the Great

• Romanov Dynasty took conrol of Russia in 1613 after turmoil of Ivan's death
• Three main groups in Russia had conflicting desires/agendas
• Church => Conserving traditional values + beliefs
• Boyars => desire to gain + hold power
• Members of the tsar's royal family

• Hundred Year's war ended
• Increase in literacy bcs of Gutenberg printing press
• some countries becoming powerful and wealthy nations
• new overseas exploration + colonies around the world
• monarchies wanted to centralize power by controlling taxes, army, and religion
• New monarchs = tudors ( england), valois ( france) and queen isabella + ferdinand ( spain)
• middle class gorwing at the expense of lords ad churches

• Mughal zamindar tax collection : Mugahl emperors appointed tax officers/zamindars to collect taxes from peasant class based on land + production
• Ottoman tax farming => ottoman sultans appointed "tax farmers"=> payed annual fixed sum of money for an area Janissaries sometimes paid this manner => collected more money than paid out to gov

Emperor Kangxi

• Ruled 1661-1722
• Presided over a period of stability and expansion along Qing dynasty
• Sent forces into Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia
• China imposed protectorate over Tibet

Emperor Qianlong

• Ruled 1736-1796
• Beginning of ruin tax collections at all time high
• Initiated military campaigns in lands west of china=> Annexation of Xinjiang with mass killings of local population
• local muslim population ( uighurs) never fully incorporated into the rest of china
• armies sent into tibet to install Dalai Lama on the trhone
• Campaign against Nepalese successful => submiteted to chinese rule
• INvastions of Burma + Vietnam unsuccessful

• Strong Militaries did not prevent conflict among land-based empires
• ottomans ( sunni) always went against Safavid ( shi'a islam)
• Safavids and mughals also but for resources and trade routes in Afghanistan
• two muslim empires conflicted when morocco invaded songhai and moroccan forces sacked captial and ended empire but couldnt hold onto all territory

• Jesuits ( society of Jesus ) was religious order founded in 1540 by Ignatius of Loyola and made missionary activity throughout Spanish Empire, Japan, and India
• Council of Trent corrected the church's abuses and reaffirmed the catholic church rituals and published the indec of prohibited books

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• Invasion of central asia/ middle east by tamerlane ( Timur the lame - some Mongol-turkic ruler of late 14th century) allowed for future rise of turkic empires
• army was partly nomadic invaders from braod steppes of eurasia, and it moved out from trading city of Samarkand and made conquests in Persia ( modern-day iran) and india
• Eurasian steppes gave birth to ghazi ideal => model of warrior life w/ nomadic culture + willingness to be holy fighter for islam #
• Some historians believed Tamerlane's takeover included the massacre of arond 100k hindus b4 seeing new delhi in india
• now monarchies resultied => ottomans, safavids, and mughals
• tamarlane encouraged learning and the arts
• when the empire fell apart largely it proved how gunpowder was significance but failing to make an effective political structure would ravage the economy.
• he protected silk roads and made gov dependent on military and use of artillery
• his rule cast light on two major forces battling each other lots form late 10th century to 14th century
• mongols from north vs islamic forces in arabia

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• Had its origin in the Safavid order of sufism
• Early Safavid hero named Ismail conquered most of Perisa and pushed into Iraq
• Soon conquered all of Iran and was proclaimed shah ( king or emperor)
• Two problems =>No real navy + no natural defenses ( oops)
• Abbas the great/ Shah Abbas I ruled at empires height
• troops were christian boys pressed into service as soldiers
• imported weapons from europe
• contolled religion and politics
• used Shi'a islam as unifying force and controlled religion and politics
• caused conflicts with ottoman empire=> stronghold of sunni islam
• Safavid forces stoppoed by ottomans at Tabriz ( city in persia) this is why the two groups have hostility => Hostility lives on between present-day Iraq and Iran
• Conflicts not entirely relligious => ottomans caused embargoes on the safavid silk traders
• Safavid women could participate in societies
• still veried and restricted in movements
• had laws on inheritances and divorce for women

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• rulers would make an elite group of soldiers for use in solidifying control over territories
• ex => ottoman sultan and safavid shah used enslaved soliders to offset power of troops having more loyalty to their tribe
• Janissaries => slave soldier boys who were taken from christian families at young age and trained to be dependent on sultan, so more loyal than locally trained soldiers by tribe leaders and stuff
• Ghulams => similar to janissaries just take slave boys from georgian, armenian, or circassian popluations for the Safavid empire to be loyal to the Shah

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• major changes in gov and religion
• contantinople => istanbul
• coffehouses = thriving business throughout the towns of the empire
• Istanbul become more beautiful and expanded across both sides of strait of Bosporus
• royal residence of sultans => topkapi palace was famous
• asuleiman I ordered mosques, forts, and other great buildings
• Istanbul = center of arts and learning => poets and scholars from across asia meet in coffeehouses and gardens
• discussed works of aristotle and other greek writers
• ottomans restored the cathedral of saint sophia into a grand mosque

• Armies were well trained, organizaed, equippd, and led
• empires in eurasia relied on gunpowder weapons with cavalry and infnatry unites
• americas => fieceness of aztec and incan warriors allowed them to intimidate + conquer neighboring territories

• Ivan IV expanded the Russian border eastward => took control of khanates of Kaza, Astrakhan, and Siberia ( descendends of the golden horde) / monoglian conqueres
• relied on the use of gunpowder for these expansions

• Declined as Western Europe grew economically and militarily in terms of sea power
• Russia modernized and reorganized its army and modeled it after england, france, and netherlands
• Islamic empires like => ottoman, safavid, and mughal never modernized so they lowkey fell oops
• Decline of ottomans => after suleiman's death the spaniards and venetians defeated the ottomans in a great conflice known as battle of Lepanto
• Aft suleiman they were victim to weak sultans + storong european neighbors
• Empire known as sick man of europe
• became weak
• Mughal Decline
• Shah Jahnans son Aurangzeb inherited an empire weakend by corruptions and the failture to keep up with military innovations of external enermies
• Aurangzeb wanted to increase the size of empire and wanted to make all of india unde rmuslime rule
• wanted to rid empire of hindu influences
• Drained treasury wanting to expand empire down south
• unable to put down peasnat uprising and some were bcs of Aurangzebs insistence on austere and pious islam lifestype
• british and french gained more economic power when he died

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• Wealthy familites collect taxes in their area of the countryside
• land taxes was the bulk of taxes collected =. low rates
• collected in forms of grain then later silver
• some were sent from grand canal to military locations
• the vaults had a surplus for years

• Aztec tribute lists => aztecs made revenue from yearly offerings/tributes from surrounding areas - lists had loal products made/valued + people for sacrifice
• Ming collocted "hard currency" which was => rice, or silver coins later, because paper money led to counterfeiting + hyperinflation

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• Not all empires can maintains authority => gunpowder empires could not compete eith european trading companies
• they also could not keep up with weak or corrupt leadership or naval and military tech
• expensive armies each empire needed to maintain control made harsh financila burderns on peasnats and villages for taxes
• religious conflicts also divided lowkey

• King James I believed in the divine right of kings => common claim from middle agoes that the right to rule was given to a king by god
• King was both a religious and political authority
• Believed kings were outside of law + any earthly authority

Gentry Officials

• Turdors relied of justices of the peace=> officials selected by landed gentry to swear to maintain peacein counties of england, settle some leagl matters, and carry out monarch's laws
• Responsibilities and number of justics of peace increased through the years of tudor rule + became one of the most important + powerful groups in the kingdom
• feudal lords power weakened uder tudor rule
• many seats in house of commonsin parliament were occupied bu justices of the peace
• Parliament checked monarchs powers => 1689 William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights => assured individual civil liberties + guaranteed protectiosn against tyranny of the monarchy

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• Mausoleums like taj mahal + mosques in mughal empire
• Palace of versailles

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• Ming dynasty used civil service examination to assess abilities of scholar-gentry
• Devshirme system in ottoman empire gave sultan ready civil servants who were loyal
• Safavid empire => shah would enlist class of bureucrats from persian population of empire => "men of the pen"
• Songhai Empire => mansa employed bureucrats from scholarly class educated or madrasas
• incas organized their empire into federal system of provinces headed by obles loal to emperor=> oversaw organized political structure divided on the basis of decimal system
• Aztecs less centralized => tributary system less direct control over territory more so fear than ruling

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Calvinism

Lutheranism

1. Monk named Marin Luther in Wittenburg objected several church practices, such as the sale of indulgences => payments for absolution from punishments for sin and simony => selling of church offices
2. Luther defiantly challenged the church by nailing his charges of 95 theses to a church door
3. advocated for "sola fide"
4. Jan 1521 Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther
5. German political leadres sided with luther
6. supported women having access to god
7. thought that they should teach hcildren the bible

1. John Calvin broke and made the Institutes of the Christian Religion to reform religious community in GEneva, switzerland
2. Made "the elect" which are people predestined for heaven=> ran the community based on plain living
3. Followers in france called huguenots
4. Purtians in england
5. Calvinists believed that calvinists should have hard work and that god favored obedience and hard work

Anglicanism

Orthodox Church + Reforms in Russia

• King Henry VIII wanted a male heir to succeed him and Henry wanted the Pope to annul his marriage so he could marry Anne Boleyn => Pope refused because he was worried about Charles V => emperor of the Holy Roman Empire
• Henry set himself up as the new head of church in england/ Anglican church

• Peter the Great of Russia moved against the Orthodox church => church connected people and the tsars -claimed to rule by divine right
• Abolished the position of head of church + made the church into the gov
• in place of head he made Holy Synod => clergymen overseen by secular official answering to the tsar
• raise minimum age for men to be eligible for monkhood to 50