SA 1. THE ANCIEN REGIME AND THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

SA 1. THE ANCIEN REGIME AND THE AGE OF ENLIGHTENMENT

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INTRODUCTION

The French Revolution laid the foundations of the contemporary world by breaking with the Old Regime and promoting the development of constitutional and democratic governments.There were also changes that affected daily life. For example, the revolutionaries decided to commemorate the proclamation of the Republic (1792) as Year I of humanity. From this event onward, a new calendar was introduced, replacing the Gregorian calendar and eliminating religious holidays and monarchical references. The instability generated during this process facilitated Napoleon’s rise to power. He went on to conquer half of Europe, prompting a reaction from the absolutist states. After the defeat of the French emperor, borders were redrawn, with the emergence and disappearance of states and the introduction of new forms of government.

1. ECONOMY AND SOCIETY OF THE ANCIEN REGIME

The Economy of the Ancien Regime During the 18th century, the societies of the Old Regime predominated in Europe. They had a traditional agrarian economy, were divided into social estates, and were governed by absolute monarchies. Agriculture was the main economic activity. It was subsistence farming, using traditional methods and techniques, with low yields and primarily aimed at self-consumption. Trade and exchanges were very limited. The cultivation system was the three-field rotation with fallow: villages farmed in open fields divided into three areas for rotation. Villagers had a plot in each area, and livestock grazed and fertilized the fallow land. From time to time, subsistence crises occurred due to years of adverse weather that caused poor harvests, rising wheat prices, famine, and epidemics, which in turn led to uprisings of the people against the rulers.

In the 18th century, the European population grew a lot. During this century there were no big epidemics or wars like in the past. Without catastrophic mortality, the high birth rate made the population increase. This growth created more demand for food, so new lands were cultivated and new crops like potato and corn were introduced. The increase of population also made industry grow in two ways: - Domestic work: merchants gave raw materials to artisans, and later collected and sold the finished products. - Manufactories: large workshops with many artisans. They produced luxury items such as glass, tapestries, and also weapons.

THE ESTATE-BASED SOCIETY // ESTATES OF THE REALM OR THREE ESTATES

The society of the Old Regime was organized into estates and divided into two main groups. The differences between these two groups were based on birth or lineage, not on wealth.

THE PRIVILEGED

THE UNPRIVILEGED

The Burgeoise

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This estate-based society had the following general characteristics:- The social division was rigid. This means that there was no possible discussion about the estates that made up society or about the roles assigned to each one. - Each estate was ruled by different rules or laws. In other words, each one had specific laws, and the nobility and the clergy enjoyed legally recognized privileges. - There was almost no social mobility. This means that the possibility of moving up or down in the social scale was very limited. The estate with the greatest openness was the clergy, which included members from both the nobility and the common people, although the positions were clearly divided. (For example, younger sons of noble families were often destined for the clergy).

A VISUAL REVIEW

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2. NEW WAYS OF THINKING IN THE 18TH CENTURY: RATIONALISM AND THE ENLIGHTENMENT

THE ENLIGHTENMENT was a cultural and intellectual movement whose aim was to dispel the darkness of human ignorance through the light of knowledge and reason.

• It defended human rationality and the idea of progress.
• Enlightenment thinkers criticized the foundations of the Old Regime and contributed to creating a new model of social and political organization.
• They supported religious and freedom of thought, education, and social mobility, valuing personal merit and work over belonging to a certain class.

These ideas led to a series of political reforms, such as:

• A tax system where taxes were not only on the common people.
• The division of powers.
• Parliamentarism.
• The social contract.
• The existence of a constitution.
• National sovereignty.

Enlightenment ideas also addressed the economy. Against mercantilism, the thinkers argued that a country's wealth depended on agriculture and productive activities.Economic liberalism also emerged, based on Adam Smith’s theories. Unlike previous protectionism, liberalism defended that the economy works best if the state allows economic freedom:

• Freedom to trade: States should allow free exchange of goods (free trade).
• Freedom to produce: States should not intervene in production. Goods should be produced and offered in the market according to demand.
• Respect for individual initiative: States should respect entrepreneurship and encourage free competition.

THE ENCYCLOPEDIA

The Encyclopedia was a collection of universal knowledge created between 1751 and 1772 under the direction of two French Enlightenment thinkers: D’Alembert and Diderot. The work defended Enlightenment values, criticized the social hierarchy and absolutism, and proposed a society that was just, free, open, and cosmopolitan. It was a huge success in France and other European countries, although in some places it was included on lists of banned books because of its revolutionary ideas.

ENLIGHTENED DESPOTISM

Enlightened despotism was a political system that appeared in Europe in the second half of the 17th century.Kings from different countries, such as Frederick II of Prussia, Empress Maria Theresa of Austria, Catherine II of Russia, Joseph I of Portugal, and Charles III of Spain, tried to carry out political reforms influenced by Enlightenment ideas, while keeping the absolute power of the monarchy and the foundations of the Old Regime.

The motto of enlightened despotism was "everything for the people, but without the people." It refers to the reformist character and the rulers’ willingness to act for the benefit of the people, but without giving up their privileges. The aim of the sovereigns was to increase their power through economic, military, and cultural development. With the help of secretaries and ministers influenced by Enlightenment ideas, they:

• Improved administration.
• Established programs for agricultural and industrial development.
• Liberalized trade.
• Promoted education for the common people.
• Created universities and academies.
• Supported research and culture.
• Spread scientific and technical advances.
• Acted as protectors and patrons of the arts.

SOME OF THE MAIN FRENCH ENLIGHTENMENT THINKERS WERE…

VOLTAIRE (1694–1778)He defended parliamentarism as a way to limit the power of monarchs, as well as a fairer tax system without exemptions for the privileged.ould belong to the king.

MONTESQUIEU (1689–1755) He developed the theory of the separation of powers, following the English model.

• The legislative power should belong to Parliament.
• The judicial power should belong to independent judges.
• The executive power should belong to the king.

ROUSSEAU (1712–1778)

• He defended national sovereignty, meaning that sovereignty resides in the people, not the monarch.
• He also argued that it was necessary to establish a social contract, in which the people gave power to a government and institutions.

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18th CENTURY SPAIN: THE BOURBONS

The War of the Spanish Succession was the first great European conflict of the 18th century. After the death of King Charles II without heirs in 1700, two candidates from the main royal families of Europe fought for the Spanish throne:

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The group that supported Charles of Habsburg wanted to prevent a possible union of France and Spain under one king. However, when in 1711 the Archduke became Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, this alliance saw a new danger: the possible union of Spain and Austria. The war, which in the Iberian Peninsula had turned into a civil war, ended with the signing of the Treaties of Utrecht and Rastatt (1713–1714). These treaties established a new dynasty in Spain, the Bourbons, and Philip V became the first king of this new royal house.

The War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1714) was both a European conflict and a civil war, where each contender wanted to take advantage and place their candidate or obtain a territorial piece of the Spanish Empire, which was in dissolution. The peace agreements also brought territorial consequences, as the Spanish Crown had to give: to Austria, the Catholic Netherlands, the Kingdom of Naples, Sardinia, and the Duchy of Milan; to Savoy, the Kingdom of Sicily; and to Great Britain, the islands of Minorca and Gibraltar.

Philip V began a process of political and administrative centralization in the new Kingdom of Spain:

• With the Decrees of Nueva Planta, he abolished the laws and institutions of the Crown of Aragon, imposing the Castilian legal, political, and administrative model.
• He created the Secretariats of State, the predecessors of today’s ministries.
• He organized the country into provinces, each governed by a Captain General and a Royal Court (Audiencia). For economic and financial administration, provincial intendancies were established.

In foreign policy, Philip V allied with France through the Family Compacts, and with a renewed army he tried to recover the territories lost after the Treaty of Utrecht, but he did not succeed.Philip V abdicated in 1724 in favor of his eldest son, Louis I, who died shortly after. Then Philip V became king again until his death in 1746. After him, two of his sons ruled Spain: first Ferdinand VI, and after his death, his half-brother Charles III, starting in 1759.

CARLOS III

King Charles III took part as an ally of France in the Seven Years’ War and in the American War of Independence, which allowed him to recover Menorca. In domestic policy, together with ministers such as the Marquis of Esquilache and the Count of Floridablanca, Charles promoted a project to modernize the country through fiscal, economic, educational, and religious reforms. Among the most important measures were:

• the expulsion of the Jesuits, to strengthen the King’s authority over the Church;
• the reorganization of the army;
• the liberalization of trade with America;
• the creation of the Bank of San Carlos (the origin of the current Bank of Spain);
• the construction of public works and the improvement of communications in Madrid;
• and the promotion of luxury goods manufacturing.

Inspired by Enlightenment thinkers such as Gaspar Melchor de Jovellanos, Charles III tried to increase agricultural production by repopulating empty areas and encouraging new farming methods. Charles was known as “the best mayor of Madrid”, because he introduced street lighting, waste collection services, and a sewage system. He also built public hospitals and monuments such as the Puerta de Alcalá. Upon the death of Charles III, he was succeeded by his son Charles IV, who stopped the reform process due to the fear caused by the French Revolution.

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6. SPANISH AMERICA: THE KINGDOMS OF THE INDIES

Since the arrival of Christopher Columbus to the lands on the other side of the Atlantic, the Catholic Monarchs promoted new voyages of exploration and conquest. The new territories belonging to the Spanish Monarchy were called the “West Indies” or the “Kingdoms of the Indies.”

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATIONSOCIETY ECONOMY CULTURE

GOVERNMENT AND ADMINISTRATION

To administer the conquered territories, the metropolis established the Casa de Contratación (House of Trade) in Seville, which had fiscal and judicial functions and was responsible for organizing expeditions, as well as the Council of the Indies, which exercised civil and religious authority and controlled matters of justice, war, and finance. The Crown created viceroyalties to govern the territories: the Viceroyalty of New Spain, with its capital in Mexico City, and the Viceroyalty of Peru, with its capital in Lima. These viceroyalties were headed by viceroys appointed by the monarch, most of whom belonged to the Spanish nobility. The viceroyalties were divided into governorships or provinces, headed by governors, audiencias (judicial courts), and cabildos (similar to municipal councils). In the 18th century, the Bourbons reduced the number of members and the powers of both the Council of the Indies and the Casa de Contratación; the latter was moved to Cádiz to favor maritime trade. Throughout the century, new viceroyalties were created to improve administration, such as New Granada and the Río de la Plata, along with smaller administrative institutions. The Crown also controlled the ecclesiastical administration of the colonies. It created dioceses, appointed church officials, built churches, and sought to evangelize the Indigenous peoples.

SOCIETY

In the Kingdoms of the Indies, society was organized according to ethnic criteria. At the top were the Hispanics (peninsulares and criollos born in the colonies). Below them were the mestizos (children of Europeans and Indigenous people), followed by Indigenous Americans and enslaved Africans. Those born in the Iberian Peninsula usually enjoyed greater social prestige than the criollos, who were barred from holding certain government offices and the highest ranks in the army. This situation led the criollos to demand reforms and improvements and, later—when Enlightenment ideas arrived—to develop independence aspirations.

ECONOMY

Initially, the colonial economic model was based on the shipment of precious metals, raw materials, and luxury goods to Spain, and on the sale of manufactured products and enslaved Africans to the colonies. Mining was the most important economic sector. The extraction of gold and silver was the most profitable activity for both the Crown and private investors. Agriculture was organized in large estates (latifundia), using Indigenous labor at first and later enslaved workers. From Spain arrived products such as wheat, vine, olive, mulberry, and coffee, while the colonies sent to the metropolis maize, potato, tomato, cocoa, and tobacco. Livestock farming experienced enormous growth with the arrival of cattle, horses, pigs, sheep, and goats from Spain. Trade, however, failed to meet the colonies’ needs, which led to widespread smuggling to supply them. Commercial circuits also developed between different American regions and between viceroyalties.

CULTURE

In Spanish America, the Catholic religion and the Spanish language were promoted as unifying elements of society. Nevertheless, in some regions Indigenous languages such as Quechua, Guaraní, and Nahuatl continued to be spoken. European culture expanded during the Modern Age through universities and printing presses, especially between the 17th and 18th centuries. The first universities were founded by the Crown and the Jesuits, following the model of the University of Salamanca. New cities were created with a grid plan (checkerboard layout), where straight streets extended from a central square and intersected perpendicularly.

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They formed the common estate or Third Estate, which included the majority of the population: peasants, servants, merchants, and also wealthy bourgeois. They all shared the same lack of rights. Most were peasants who worked as tenants or laborers on the lands of the privileged, paying rents and feudal dues. Among the urban popular classes, artisans were required to follow the rules of the guilds, which hindered innovation. Wealthy merchants and bankers also sought influence, although they faced difficulties in gaining access to political positions and power.

The nobility and the clergy were the privileged estates. The nobility owned lands and properties linked to each noble title or household. They did not pay taxes and were judged by special laws and courts.The Church received tithes (a tax of 10% of the harvest) from peasants and owned extensive lands, buildings, and parishes. The high clergy had privileges due to their noble origin and held the top positions in the Church exclusively.

THE BOURGEOISIE SAW ITS POWER AND INFLUENCE GROW FROM THE 17th CENTURYThe development of commercial business made the bourgeoisie (merchants, bankers…) richer compared to nobles and clergy, whose wealth was based on land ownership. In this way, the power and social influence of the bourgeoisie increased, highlighting the contradiction of their inequality before the law, since they were still part of the Third Estate.