B. Psychology III - Third Partial

IB PSychology III third partial

The individual and the group. Deliver IA.

Socialization

V S

SECONDARY SOCIALIZATION

PRIMARY SOCIALIZATION

Secondary socialization tends to influence adherence to or deviation from social norms. It includes elements such as the extended community, extended family, and the media.

The term “primary” refers to the proximity of the target, not the order in which it occurs. It determines children’s prosocial or antisocial behavior. Who are they?

what are the risks and benefits in each socialization type?

Primary

Secondary

Arrange the options as corresponding:

Behavior monitoring

Exposure to diverse influences

Alternative to a violent home

Biases, censorship, info manipulation by third parties

Foundations for a safe attachment bond

Loss or difusion of nuclear values

what is censorship and why does it happen?

Who determines social norms? Who should be responsible for socialization? Why do societies punish deviation from norms? Are there some that impose harsher punishments? Is the media neutral or biased?How does it impact secondary socialization and learning?

social cognitive theory

learned behavior:

Behavior had been studied by behaviorists such as Ivan Pavlov and BF Skinner. They believed learning was simply conditioning a response from a stimulus.

• Classical conditioning
• Operant conditioning (trial and error / reward and punishment)
• Cognitive learning (internal representation of the environment)

Classical Conditioning Ivan pavlov, 1897

Classical conditioning follows the principle “stimulus-reaction”.

Repeated pairing of a conditional stimulus with an unconditional stimulus leads to the formation of an association and a conditioned response.

Operant Conditioning b.f. Skinner, 1948

Operant conditioning is a learning process in which an association is made between a behaviour and its consequence (such as reward or punishment). When considered from the perspective of the learner, it is also referred to as “trial-and-error learning”.

Operant Conditioning b.f. Skinner, 1948

“Give me a child and I'll shape him into anything”

- B. F. Skinner, father of the Radical Behaviorism

social learning theory

Albert Bandura proposed the Social Learning Theory in the 1960s, which explains how learning occurs through the relationship between stimuli and responses within the interaction between the individual and the environment. Learning can happen directly (experiencing consequences ourselves) or indirectly (observing the consequences of another person's actions).

social learning experiment

huesmann et al, 2003

What are the long term effects of television?

social cognitive theory

The Social Learning Theory evolved into the Social Cognitive Theory as a broader explanation of how learning occurs in a social context. The theory states that behavior is acquired through the observation or imitation of the behavior of other members of a group.

Example: what happens when you're in a bad mood?

social cognitive theory

It has two main assumptions about behavior: 1. Behaviors and social norms are learned by observing others. 2. Behaviors are acquired, maintained, and changed within a social context.

And four components:

Identification

Modeling

how does it happen?

Outcome expectations

Self-efficacy

cognitive processes of social learning

Attention(observation)

Motivation

Reproduction

Retention

cognitive processes of learning, according to bandura

Retention

Attention

Reproduction

Motivation

It is essential to remember the behavior that was observed in order to reproduce it later. This is particularly important in cases where the imitation of the learned behavior is delayed.

In Social Learning Theory (1977), Bandura argued that instead of learning through “trial and error,” people learn through observational learning, which occurs by watching others.

The reproduction of a behavior is influenced by self-efficacy — the belief in one’s ability to perform the behavior.High self-efficacy → optimism and confidence Low self-efficacy → low confidence

Performing an action is strongly linked to reinforcement. Reinforcement can be effective both directly and indirectly: we can learn by being rewarded or punished for our own actions, or by observing others being reinforced.

further support for bandura's theory

Perry, Perry and Rasmussen (1986)

Sheridan et al (2011) - Prosocial

Mihalic and Elliot (1997) - Marital aggression

Children completed questionnaires on self-efficacy and outcome expectations related to aggression. Aggressive children found it easier to act aggressively and believed it would bring rewards rather than punishment. Girls expected aggression to cause harm and be punished more severely.

In a study with 647 children, skills such as listening, following instructions, problem-solving, and emotional expression were assessed through an intervention program that uses modeling. Improvements were observed, suggesting that social cognitive learning can also foster positive, cooperative behaviors.

Men and women who were exposed to physical violence tend to show higher levels of marital aggression. Implicit acts of violence make such behavior socially acceptable.

In 1965, in a partial replication of Bandura's studies, researchers sought to examine the role of reinforcement in aggression. In this version, children watched movies, were divided into three conditions:

1. Control: The children witnessed aggression without reward or punishment
2. Reward: The children witnessed aggression, followed by a reward for aggressive acts with candies or sodas.
3. Punishment: The children witnessed aggression followed by a punishment with a grimace or spankings.

It was found that children in the 3rd condition exhibited less aggressive behavior than the others (Bandura, 1965).

Reciprocal Triadic Determinism Model, Albert Bandura The individual interacts with social systems in a bidirectional manner, with three factors:

• Behavior (actions and decisions)
• Personal factors (cognition, emotion, and biology)
• Environment (spaces, rules, people).

Personal factors interact and influence behavior and the environment, and in turn, these influence each other. So, depending on the environment I find myself in, will I behave or act in a certain way? In this theory, the individual is not passive but an agent in these interactions. Bandura proposes the concept of human agency, which explains how the individual has the capacity to control their own functioning and the events that affect them. The individual is both a product and producer of social systems. According to Bandura, humans are not reactive organisms but proactive, self-reflective, and self-regulating.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationship between children's exposure to television violence and subsequent aggressive and violent behavior in adulthood. The researchers asked:

• To what extent does exposure to television violence in childhood predict aggression and violence in adulthood;
• are there gender differences;
• how much does the child's identification with the character or belief that it is real affect the prediction;
• to what extent is it due to their liking to see violence, or due to environmental elements, such as family or personal environment that stimulates violence.

The method they followed was a longitudinal correlational study, including a meta-analysis of the data. The original experiment was conducted with 557 children from Chicago in 1977 and 1992. They found a positive correlation between children exposed to television violence and aggressive and violent behaviors in both genders, 15 years later. Specifically, they found correlations between the child's perception that TV violence reflects real life and identification with the same-sex characters' aggression. Parents are an important factor influencing aggression and television habits. However, the results of this factor do not fully explain the longitudinal correlations.

En 1961, Bandura, Ross y Ross probaron su teoría cognitiva social en 72 niños de entre 3 y 6 años inscritos en la guardería de la Universidad de Stanford. Fueron tres grupos: (1) exposición a un adulto jugando agresivamente con el muñeco Bobo, (2) exposición a un adulto involucrado en una postura no agresiva y (3) ningún modelo para observar. Los maestros de jardín de infancia calificaron a los niños según su agresividad antes del experimento para controlar nivel de agresividad previo. Metodología: El experimentador llegaba con el modelo y el niño a un cuarto en donde había juegos, un martillo y el muñeco Bobo. Al dejarlos el modelo empezaba a jugar. En el modelo agresivo, el modelo comenzaba a actuar verbalmente y físicamente agresivo contra el muñeco. Después se retiraba al niño a los 10 minutos a otro cuarto. Esta sesión duraba 20 minutos en el que el investigador trabaja en silencio, esperando si el niño instigaba violencia. Resultados: La exposición de modelos agresivos incrementó la agresividad en niños.Los niños son más propensos a imitar la agresión física que las niñas.

Conclusiones: No basta con sólo observar, se debe de prestar atención para replicar los modelos. Algunos modelos requieren de mayor atención que otros, y el modelaje de comportamientos se da más fácil si hay atracción interpersonal (familia cercana y televisión). En 1963 se replicó la investigación y se encontró que mediante la observación se replica el comportamiento.

• An unconditioned stimulus (US) is an environmental stimulus that is biologically potent, for example, the taste of food. You do not have to teach a dog that “food is good”: it is a biologically predetermined knowledge.
• A conditioned stimulus (CS) is an environmental stimulus that is neutral and that by itself does not produce any biologically predetermined reaction. For example, the sound of a bell ringing does not carry any biologically important information.
• An unconditioned response (UR) is a reflex response to an US. For example, a dog will naturally salivate at the sight or smell of red meat.

Pavlov's idea was that, if you repeatedly present the meat (US) and the bell (CS) several times, you will be able to remove the meat and the dog will salivate at the sound of the bell. Such a learned response was called a conditioned response (CR). Unlike the UR which is a biological reflex, the CR is acquired through experience.

Bandura mentions four sources:

1. Mastery experiences
   1. Past success reinforces the belief that greater success is possible, but failure reduces confidence in a successful outcome.
2. Vicarious learning
   1. Seeing others succeed through sustained effort will increase the observer's beliefs in their own ability.
3. Social persuasion
   1. People who are persuaded by others that they have the ability to succeed in an action or behavior are more likely to make an effort and maintain it than those who receive negative reinforcement.
4. Physical and emotional states
   1. Positive states increase the perception of self-efficacy.

One of the most well-known experiments in social psychology is the Bobo doll experiment. The purpose of the experiment was to investigate whether aggression can be learned through observation and imitation. The experiment was conducted with 36 boys and 36 girls aged 2 to 6 years. Before the experiment: Levels of everyday aggression were measured (observation during school) using a 5-point scale. This allowed grouping children with others of similar aggression levels. Individually, each child was taken to a room with different toys, and they were given 10 minutes to play; their behavior was observed through a glass wall. Conditions:

• An matched pairs design was followed, dividing children into two groups.
• In the first group of 24 children, a man or woman entered the room modeling aggressive behavior towards the Bobo doll (hitting, throwing a ball, sitting on it, hitting it with a plastic hammer, kicking); also verbal aggressions like “hit him,” “hit him in the nose,” “pow.”
• The second group of 24 children saw the model playing calmly with various toys, without any aggressive behavior.
• The control group of 24 children did not have a model to follow.

After observing the model, children were taken to a room filled with attractive toys; once the child played for two minutes, the experimenter told them, “these are the best toys, and I won't let you play with them because I decided to reserve them for the other children.” This was intended to incite aggression. Then they were taken to another room where they could play with any toy; in this room, aggressive behaviors were evaluated through observation. Results:

• Group 1 exhibited more aggressive behaviors than children in groups 2 and 3 (same physical and verbal forms of behavior seen in the models).
• Differences in behavior between boys and girls; boys imitate physical aggressions more than girls, and are more likely to imitate same-gender models. Girls in the group showed greater physical aggression with a male model.
• Some behaviors not learned during the experiment were observed; some children grabbed a toy gun. However, the difference between the experimental group and the control group was not significant. This can be explained as transfer of learning, as aspects seen in other contexts were applied in the experiment.

Skinner invented the “operant conditioning chamber” (now more commonly known as the Skinner box). It was an isolated environment for a small animal (like a rat or a pigeon). The chamber delivered reinforcements and punishments (such as a food-dispensing mechanism). It had transparent walls for observation and a “cumulative recorder” that produced a graphical record of the frequency of observed reactions. All experiments followed a well-defined "reinforcement schedule” (with defined interval, frequency, and intensity).

For example, consider a rat that learns its way through a maze. In trial-and-error learning, the rat demonstrates a particular behaviour (e.g., it chooses a specific turn in a maze) and the consequence follows (e.g., the rat finds a treat or gets an electric shock). Depending on the consequence, certain behaviours get reinforced (e.g., if the rat was shocked by electricity, it will not be as likely to choose the same turn in the maze next time). Gradually, repetition after repetition, what used to be random activities are directed into a behavioural pattern. The starting point of learning in operant conditioning is a pool of naturally varied behaviours, but then—through punishments and reinforcement—there is a “natural selection” process through which some behaviours become extinct while others become more prominent.