Energy Sources
Level 3: Advanced
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Introduction
The global energy landscape is rapidly evolving due to technological advancements, policy shifts, and environmental challenges. Understanding energy systems at an is crucial for decision making, innovation, and effective energy management. This course provides a deep dive into different energy sources, transition strategies, emerging technologies, and energy policies that shape the future of energy. You will engage with complex problem solving examples, advanced case studies, and interactive questions to apply theoretical knowledge to real world energy challenges. By the end of this course, you will be be equipped to understand the differences between energy sources, evaluate energy policies, and understand the political implications of energy systems.
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Energy Sources Level 3: Advanced
Objectives
Modules
Exercises
Evaluation
Objectives
What will you learn?
- You will analyze the efficiency and sustainability of various energy sources, including fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewables.
- You will explore the technological advancements shaping the future of energy sources.
- You will examine the aspects of various energy sources, analyzing market trends, and policy incentives driving the transition toward a cleaner and more efficient energy.
- Reflect on how small energy-saving actions can reduce energy bills.
Modules
Module 3: Fossil fuels and decarbonization pathways
Module 1: Introduction to the objectives
Module 2: What is energy and its sources?
Module 4: Renewable energy sources
Module 5: Energy transition and policies
Module 6: Conclusions
Energy and its transformation
Energy is the capacity to perform work, existing in various forms such as thermal, chemical, mechanical, and electrical energy. It drives all physical and technological processes and is essential for industrial, transportation, and household activities. There are various forms of energy, including kinetic (motion), thermal (heat), electrical, chemical, nuclear, and radiant (light) energy. These forms can be converted into one another through different processes.
Energy transformation occurs in everyday life. For example, in a power plant, chemical energy from fuel is converted into thermal energy, which is then transformed into mechanical energy to drive turbines, eventually generating electricity. Not all energy can be fully utilized; exergy represents the portion of energy that can be converted into work, while energy accounts for the total content. The efficiency of energy conversion is governed by the Laws of Thermodynamics. For example, thermal power plants operate under Carnot efficiency limits, meaning not all input energy is converted into usable electricity. Comparing the energy efficiency of a coal fired power plant (35-40%) vs. a combined cycle gas turbine (50-60%) highlights the importance of advanced energy technologies.
Figure 1. Energy [1]
Energy Sources
Energy sources are categorized into non-renewable and renewable
Renewable energy sources are derived are derived from naturally replenishing resources such as sunlight, wind, water, and biomass. They provide a long term sustainable alternative to fossil fuels but often require technological advancements to overcome intermittency and storage limitations.✅ Environmentally friendly with lower carbon emissions. ✅ Minimal operating costs once infrastructure is in place.✅ Sustainable and does not deplete over time. ❌ Higher initial investment costs and infrastructure development required.❌ Dependent on external factors like weather conditions (e.g., solar and wind energy). ❌ Large-scale installations require significant space and materials
Non-renewable energy sources are finite resources that deplete over time, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium for nuclear power. They have high energy densities. While they provide a high energy output and infrastructure stability, their long-term sustainability is challenged by resource depletion and environmental concerns.✅Non-renewable sources produce large amounts of energy per unit.✅ Provides a stable and reliable energy supply.✅ Established power plants and distribution networks.❌ Contributes to climate change and environmental pollution.❌ Fossil fuels are being depleted over time. ❌ Air pollution and waste disposal challenges environmental and health issues.
Figure 2. Energy sources [2]
How can different energy sources complement each other to create a more resilient energy system?
Energy consumption globally and in the European Union
- Global trends: Fossil fuels still account for over 80% of total energy consumption, though their dominance is slowly declining. Renewables are expanding due to technological advancements, cost reductions, and policy incentives, with solar and wind leading global growth. The share of renewable energy in total consumption is expected to rise significantly.
- European Union’s Energy Shift: The EU is accelerating its transition toward low-carbon energy sources, aiming for a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. Countries are actively phasing out coal, increasing offshore wind capacity, scaling up green hydrogen production, and enhancing energy storage infrastructure.
- Sectoral Consumption: The industrial sector remains the largest energy consumer, with high reliance on fossil fuels for heavy manufacturing and chemical processes. Electrification and hydrogen-based technologies are emerging as alternatives. The transportation sector is undergoing rapid electrification, with increasing adoption of electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel technologies, and biofuels. The residential sector is transitioning with smart energy systems, energy efficient buildings, rooftop solar panels, and heat pumps.
Figure 3. Energy consumption by its sources [3]
What factors drive energy mix decisions in different countries? How does geography, economy, and policy shape these choices?
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is generated through the fission process, where atoms of heavy elements (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239) are split in a controlled reaction, releasing enormous amounts of heat. This heat is used to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.Nuclear reactors use a combination of control rods, moderators, and coolant systems to sustain and regulate the chain reaction safely.Nuclear fuel cycle includes mining, enrichment, power generation, and waste disposal. Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear power does not produce direct carbon dioxide emissions, making it a low-carbon energy source. However, it is not classified as renewable because it depends on finite resources.
Figure 4. Nuclear energy [4]
France generates over 70% of its electricity from nuclear power, reducing its reliance on fossil fuels. However, debates continue on whether nuclear should remain a key part of the energy transition or be replaced entirely by renewables.
Benefits and risks of nuclear energy
Benefits
- A small amount of nuclear fuel produces vast amounts of electricity, significantly higher than fossil fuels or renewables;
- While not emission-free, nuclear power produce low CO₂ during operation, making it a noption for decarbonization;
- Provides continuous base-load power, unlike intermittent renewables;
- Reduces dependence on fossil fuel imports, offering greater geopolitical stability.
Risks
- Building nuclear power plants is capital intensive, requiring billions of dollars and long construction timelines;
- Spent nuclear fuel remains highly radioactive for thousands of years, requiring longterm storage solutions like deep geological repositories;
- While rare, nuclear disasters like Chernobyl (1986) and Fukushima (2011) have shown the catastrophic risks of reactor failures;
- Concerns over safety and waste disposal often lead to political opposition and regulatory hurdles.
Can nuclear energy be a longterm solution for reducing carbon emissions, or do its risks outweigh the benefits?
Energy tranformation and efficiency
Energy is constantly transformed from one form to another, e.g., Chemical energy (fossil fuels) → Thermal energy (heat) → Mechanical energy (turbines) → Electrical energy. Energy transformation always involves some energy loss, often in the form of heat. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy conversions are never 100% efficient, meaning optimizing energy use is crucial to reducing waste.
Several technological advancements help increase energy efficiency and minimize energy losses:
Smart grids
Efficient appliances
Advanced household and industrial devices (LED lighting, heat pumps, and high efficiency motors) consume less energy while delivering the same performance.
Intelligent electricity distribution networks that optimize power flow, reduce transmission losses, and integrate renewables efficiently.
Improve energy efficiency by storing excess electricity from renewable sources and releasing it when demand is high, balancing supply fluctuations.
Heat recovery systems
Battery storage systems
Capture and reuse waste heat from industrial processes, power plants, and buildings, increasing overall energy efficiency.
LED light bulbs convert nearly 90% of electricity into light, while traditional incandescent bulbs waste most energy as heat. This small technological shift has led to significant energy savings worldwide.
Comparison of energy sources
Table 1. Comparison of energy sources
Fossil fuels
Figure 5. Use of fossil fuels [5]
Fossil fuels — coal, oil, and natural gas — are carbon rich energy sources formed from the remains of ancient plants and microorganisms over millions of years. These fuels are extracted from underground reserves and processed for various applications, including electricity generation, transportation, and industrial processes. They are non-renewable, meaning they are long to form and are being consumed faster than they are replenished. Fossil fuels have been the dominant energy source since the Industrial Revolution due to their high energy density, ease of transportation, and established infrastructure. They have powered economic growth and still supply over 80% of the world's energy needs. Their affordability and existing supply chains make them difficult to phase out entirely in the short term. Despite their advantages, fossil fuels are finite resources and are subject to geopolitical fluctuations, price volatility, and extraction challenges. As energy demand grows, the long-term viability of fossil fuels is a subject of global debate.
Coal, oil, natural gas
Natural gas
Oil
Coal
- Burned to generate electricity in power plants, also for industrial heating, steel production.
- Largest source of electricity worldwide.
- Most abundant fossil fuel but the highest in carbon emissions. Coal has the highest carbon footprint, harmful due to air pollution, and mining.
- Declining in use due to stricter emissions regulations and competition from cheaper renewables.
- China, India, and the US are the largest consumers.
- Formed alongside oil and coal, primarily composed of methane (CH₄).
- Growing use of liquefied natural gas (LNG) for global energy trade.
- Used for heating, electricity generation, and as an industrial fuel.
- Often transported via pipelines or liquefied for international trade.
- Lower emissions of CO₂ and air pollutants than coal and oil, but releases methane, a potent greenhouse gas.
- Major producers include Russia, the United States, and Iran.
- Naturally found in liquid form and extracted from underground reservoirs.
- Refined into gasoline, diesel, and other fuels for transportation and for petrochemicals and plastics in industry.
- Largest producers include Saudi Arabia, the United States, and Russia.
- The world consumes over 90 million barrels of oil per day.
- Emits CO₂ into atmosphere, creates risk of oil spills.
- Price is influenced by geopolitical events.
Which of these fossil fuels has the greatest potential for cleaner use in the future, and what technologies can reduce their environmental impact?
Environmental impact of fossil fuels
Greenhouse gas emissions: Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄), which is 25 times more potent than CO₂ for global warming and climate change. The energy sector accounts for nearly 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Air pollution: Power plants, vehicles, and industry emit sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and fine particulate matter, leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Urban areas with high coal dependency experience increased mortality rates due to prolonged exposure to air pollutants. Oil spills and habitat destruction: Offshore drilling and oil transportation accidents result in major environmental disasters, affecting marine life and coastal ecosystems. Open-pit mining for coal leads to severe land degradation, habitat destruction, and soil erosion.
Figure 6. Deepwater Horizon oil spill [6]
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) released nearly 4.9 million barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico, causing severe damage to marine ecosystems, local fisheries, and coastal economies.
Resource depletion of fossil fuels
Coal: Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel, but high-grade coal reserves are depleting in many regions. Estimated to last another 100-150 years, but extraction is declining due to stricter emissions regulations and declining demand in developed nations which reduces its viability.Oil: Oil is becoming more difficult to extract. Conventional oil reserves are depleting, pushing industries to extract unconventional sources such as oil sands and deepwater drilling, which require higher energy input and have larger carbon footprints. Global oil reserves could be depleted in the next 50 years based on current consumption rates.Natural gas: Estimated to last 50-60 years, but new reserves are occasionally discovered. However, reserves are finite, and extraction methods like hydraulic fracturing have raised environmental concerns. Methane leakage from extraction and transport infrastructure also raises concerns about its sustainability.
Figure 7. Abandoned oil pumpjack [7]
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) released nearly 4.9 million barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico, causing severe damage to marine ecosystems, local fisheries, and coastal economies.
Four major steps for decarbonization of energy
Decarbonization aims to reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from energy production and consumption.
3. Carbon capture and storage
1. Transition to renewable sources
- Captured carbon can be stored underground (geological sequestration) or repurposed into materials such as synthetic fuels, cement, and chemicals.
- Shifting from fossil fuels to reewables in industry, heating, and transportation can drastically reduce emissions.
- Expand grid storage solutions to balance intermittent renewable sources.
4. Development of electrification
2. Enhance energy efficiency
- Expand electric vehicle (EV) adoption and phase out internal combustion cars.
- Tranform industrial processes to electricity based alternatives.
- Smart grids and AI-driven demand response optimize electricity use.
- Technologies for high-efficiency appliances, improved insulation, and industrial waste heat recovery help lower energy consumption.
Norway’s near-100% renewable electricity grid enables a successful transition to electric vehicles and electrified public transport.
Ways to reduce dependency on fossil fuels
- Switch to renewable energy providers ☀️
Households and businesses can transition to electricity providers that generate power from wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal sources.Some countries allow energy consumers to choose their electricity mix, encouraging market driven renewable adoption.
- Improve home energy efficiency 🏠
Implementing smart home technologies, energy efficient appliances, and better insulation can drastically reduce fossil fuel consumption for heating and electricity.Heat pumps and solar thermal systems provide low-carbon heating alternatives to gas and oil furnaces.
- Use low-carbon transportation options 🚲
Walk, bike, use of public transport or car-sharing services instead of driving short distances by car can cut personal fuel consumption and emissions
Figure 8. Energy transition [8]
How can industries and consumers adapt to a world with fewer fossil fuels while ensuring economic stability and energy security?
Meaning of renewable energy
Definition of renewable energy
Why is renewable energy important?
- Reduces dependence on fossil fuels lowering emisions of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄) which impact climate change.
- Provides longterm stability in energy supply and pricing.
- Reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels, enhancing energy security.
- The renewable energy sector is among the fastest growing industries, employing over 12 million people globally, with projected increases in solar, wind, and hydrogen industries.
- Renewable energy refers to energy derived from natural processes that replenish themselves continously. They are virtually inexhaustible on a human timescale. It include solar, wind, hydropower, biomass, and geothermal energy.
- Unlike fossil fuels, renewable sources does not deplete finite resources and has minimal longterm environmental impact.
Figure 9. Renewable energy sources [9]
'A transition to clean energy is about making an investment in our future' - Gloria Reuben
Solar energy
How solar energy works:Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials (e.g., silicon). Concentrated solar power (CSP) uses mirrors to focus sunlight, generating heat to produce electricity. Advances in perovskite solar cells and bifacial PV panels are increasing efficiency and reducing costs.Benefits:Unlimited energy potential; sunlight provides more energy in one hour than the world consumes in a year. Widely available, solar panels can be installed on homes, businesses, and large-scale farms with low operational costs.Challenges: Solar energy is only available during daylight hours. Large-scale solar farms require significant space. Solar panel production depends on rare materials (e.g., silver, indium) with supply chain concerns.
Video 1. How do solar panels work? [10]
Wind energy
How wind energy works:Wind turbines convert kinetic energy from moving air into mechanical power, which is transformed into electricity. Offshore wind farms capture stronger, more consistent winds, improving reliability. Innovations in floating wind turbines expand potential deployment areas.Benefits:A single modern wind turbine can power thousands of homes per year. Wind energy produces no direct emissions and requires little water compared to fossil fuel plants.Challenges: Wind speeds fluctuate, requiring storage solutions or grid balancing mechanisms. Some communities oppose wind farms due to their visual impact and noise levels. Can affect bird populations.
Video 2. How do wind turbines work? [11]
The Hornsea Wind Farm in the UK, one of the largest offshore wind farms, supplies electricity to over one million homes while reducing carbon emissions significantly.
Hydropower
How hydropower works:Dams and reservoirs store water, which is released through turbines to generate electricity. Run-of-river hydropower uses natural water flow without reservoirs, reducing ecological impact. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) acts as a large scale battery by storing excess energy.Benefits:Hydropower plants have lifespans exceeding 50 years and achieve efficiencies of over 90%. Unlike solar and wind, hydropower provides continuous energy generation. Long lifespan with relatively low maintenance.Challenges: Dams disrupt river ecosystems, fish migration, and sediment transport impacting biodiversity. Building large-scale hydroelectric plants requires significant infrastructure costs and long construction timelines.
Video 3. How does hydropower work? [12]
Geothermal energy
How geothermal energy works:Geothermal energy harnesses heat from beneath the Earth's crust by drilling wells into geothermal reservoirs to produce steam, which powers turbines to generate electricity. Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) inject water into hot rock formations to expand geothermal potential. Direct use include district heating, industrial processes, and greenhouse farming.Benefits:Continuous, reliable power that can be used for both electricity and heating. Geothermal heat pumps can cut heating and cooling costs by up to 60% compared to fossil fuel systems. Minimal land footprint compared to solar or wind farms.Challenges: Limited to regions with geothermal activity. Requires high initial investment for drilling and infrastructure.
Video 4. How does geothermal energy work? [13]
Iceland generates nearly 90% of its heating needs from geothermal energy, making it a global leader in utilizing this renewable source for sustainable development.
Biomass energy
Benefits:
Biomass energy is derived from organic materials, such as wood, agricultural residues, and animal waste, that can be burned or converted into biofuels. Advanced technologies allow for the conversion of biomass into biogas, bioethanol, and biodiesel, which can replace traditional fossil fuels in heating, electricity generation, and transportation. Biomass can be used for direct combustion processes, or to produce biogas by anaerobic digestion, or for biofuelsproduction. Most common forms of biomass are wood pellets, biogas, and biodiesel.
- Biomass absorbs CO₂ while growing, and when burned, it releases only the CO₂ it absorbed, making it a low carbon option.
- Biomass can be produced locally, reducing reliance on imported fuels.
- Converts agricultural and industrial waste into useful energy, reducing landfill waste.
- Provides an alternative to fossil fuels for electricity, heating, and transport fuels.
Challenges:
- While lower than fossil fuels, biomass combustion still produces particulate matter and other air pollutants.
- Unsustainable harvesting can lead to deforestation.
- Growing crops for biofuels competes with food, raising concerns over land use and food security.
- Biomass processing and transportation require careful management to ensure sustainability.
- Biomass has lower energy density and efficiency compared to fossil fuels or advanced renewables like wind and solar.
Figure 10. Wood pellets [14]
How can biomass energy be scaled sustainably while minimizing its impact on land use and air quality?
Global and the European Union energy transition goals
Energy transition refers to the global shift from fossil fuel-based energy systems to renewable and low-carbon energy sources. This process involves changes in infrastructure, policies, and consumption patterns to reduce environmental impact and improve energy security.
Paris Agreement (2015) is global international agreement that sets global targets to limit temperature rise below 2°C.
Over 190 countries are committed to set national climate targets, phasing out coal, and investing in renewables.
Net-zero targets: over 130 countries have pledged to reach net-zero emissions by midcentury, with leading economies like setting aggressive decarbonization roadmaps.
Phase out of fossil fue: coal use is declining in many regions, with some countries setting coal exit policies by 2030-2040.
European Union transition goals
By 2050:
- Achieve net-zero greenhouse gas emissions, effectively making the EU climate-neutral.
By 2030:
- To reach at least 55% reduction of greenhouse gas emissions compared to 1990 levels;
- EU policies mandate a 9% reduction in energy demand by 2030.
- Requires EU countries to meet at least 42.5% of energy needs from renewables.
2050
2030
1990
What other goals should be considered in efficient transition to sustainable energy?
National cases in Greece, Italy, and Austria for the energy transition
- The main energy provider in Greece (PPC Renewables) has adopted a new approach on promoting the use of renewable energy sources in Greece.
- The Municipal Authority on Waste Management (Diadyma S.A.) of the Region of Western Macedonia has adopted a business plan tailored to promoting green entrepreneurship in the region.
Greece
- The increasing investment in community solar projects, where citizens collectively fund and benefit from local solar installations.
Italy
Figure 11. Energy saving [15]
- Flyers used to improve society's energy literacy presented in simple and attractive way.
Austria
Renewable energy in Lithuania, Greece, Italy, Bulgaria, and Austria energy mix
The share of renewable energy in the total energy mix varies due to differences in natural resource availability, policy incentives, energy infrastructure, and investment strategies. Leading in renewable energy adoption, with Lithuania leveraging wind, bioenergy, and growing offshore wind projects, while Austria maintains a strong hydropower sector, covering nearly 60% of its electricity needs. Italy invests heavily in floating solar farms and hydrogen production to complement renewables. Greece is leveraging its geographic position to develop hybrid renewable systems that integrate solar, wind, and pumped hydro storage. Bulgaria is historically reliant on coal, but transitioning with increasing investments in wind, biomass, and hydro energy. Bulgaria also started exploring geothermal energy potential. Still, a significant gap can be noticed between share in electricity and total energy consumption. While renewable sources contribute substantially to electricity production, their share in overall energy use remains lower due to continued reliance on fossil fuels in sectors like transportation, heating, and heavy industry.
Figure 12. Renewable energy share in countries (2023) [16]
What can help accelerate renewable energy adoption beyond electricity generation, particularly in heating and transportation?
National energy strategies in Lithuania, Greece, Italy, Bulgaria, and Austria
Lithuania
Greece
Italy
- Major investments in offshore wind and solar power; aiming for 100% renewable electricity by 2050.
- Investing in energy storage solutions and offshore wind projects in the Baltic Sea to balance intermittent renewables.
- Plans for large-scale green hydrogen production using offshore wind power.
- Strong push for solar, offshore wind farms and hydrogen infrastructure; aiming for 55% renewables by 2030.
- The government has adopted a plan to reintroduce nuclear energy, aiming to secure energy sufficiency and decarbonize industries.
- Increasing use of biogas and green hydrogen for industrial applications.
- Phasing out coal by 2028, increasing solar and wind capacity, and integrating energy storage solutions.
- Establishing incentives for homeowners to install solar panels and heat pumps.
- Expansion of battery storage systems and interconnections between islands and mainland.
Bulgaria
Austria
- Targeting 40% renewable energy share by 2030, with coal phase-out discussions ongoing.
- Gradual transition away from coal, increasing hydropower, and expanding solar energy production.
- Focusing on improving grid infrastructure and interconnectivity to enhance energy stability also modernizing district heating systems.
- Targeting 100% renewable electricity by 2030, carbon neutrality by 2040.
- Investing in hydropower expansion, wind and solar power.
- Despite high renewable electricity generation, Austria remains heavily reliant on gas, highlighting the need for diversification in energy sources for heating.
Energy independence and geopolitics
Why is energy independence important?
Economic and social impacts of energy instability
Reduces dependency on external energy suppliers, making countries more resilient to geopolitical tensions.Countries with diversified energy sources are less vulnerable to geopolitical conflicts and economic sanctions.Strengthens national economic resilience by minimizing exposure to volatile global energy markets.
Rising energy prices affect consumers and industries, increasing the cost of living and slowing economic growth.Energy shortages lead to inflation, production slowdowns, and economic stagnation. Energy poverty rises, disproportionately impacting low income communities and developing nations.
Transitioning towards energy security
How wars affect energy prices?
Expanding renewable energy capacity reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels and stabilizes energy costs.Investing in energy storage and smart grids ensures more efficient distribution and resilience. Governments maintaining emergency energy stockpiles to counteract supply shocks.
The Russia-Ukraine war (2022) led to spikes in natural gas prices in Europe, prompting urgent energy diversification measures and accelerating the shift to renewables and LNG imports. Conflicts in major oil and gas producing regions cause supply disruptions and price volatility. Past conflicts like the 1973 Oil Crisis showcased how geopolitical instability can cripple economies reliant on fossil fuel imports.
National strategies to increase energy independence
How countries are reducing dependence on fossil fuels import?
Expanding renewable energy capacity (solar, wind, hydropower). Governments provide subsidies, tax incentives, and funding to accelerate the transition to renewables.
Countries are seeking alternative energy suppliers i. e. strengthening regional energy grids and LNG import to reduce reliance on natural gas of a single country.
Battery storage, interconnectors, hydrogen production, and smart grids are key to ensuring a stable supply of electricity from renewables.
Lithuania: LNG terminal for gas diversification to eliminate dependence on Russian gas imports; heavy investment in offshore wind energy.
Greece: Accelerating solar and wind energy projects; interconnection projects with other EU countries.
Italy: Increasing solar, wind, and hydrogen production, particularly in southern regions; interconnections with neighboring countries.
Bulgaria: Transitioning from coal to a mix of natural gas and renewables; modernizing its energy grid for better efficiency.
Austria: Strong focus on hydropower expansion; increasing cross-border energy cooperation with Germany and Switzerland for a more stable energy supply.
Which strategies are most effective in reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels, and how can countries accelerate these transitions?
Conclusions
- A comprehensive understanding of fossil fuels, nuclear energy, and renewable sources allows for informed decision-making in energy policy, investment, and sustainability strategies.
- The transition from carbon intensive fuels to low-carbon and renewable energy sources is crucial to achieving global climate targets and energy security. Decarbonization strategies also include green hydrogen, energy efficiency and electrification
- Countries are adopting diverse strategies, such as regional energy cooperation, strategic reserves, and distributed renewable systems, to increase resilience against external energy disruptions.
- Households play a key role in energy transitions by adopting energy-efficient technologies, shifting to renewable-based electricity, and reducing overall energy consumption.
- The global energy sector is undergoing a shift where renewable, integrated, decentralized, and smart energy networks will replace traditional models.
How can we accelerate the global energy transition while balancing technological advancements, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability?
Exercises
Exercise 2 Energy planning for a country
Exercise 1 Compare energy source
Your task is to develop a 10-year national energy transition plan for a country of your choice.
Evaluate different energy sources and recognize the factors influencing energy choices.
Exercise 1. Compare energy sources
- Select one fossil fuel source (e.g., coal, oil, natural gas) and one renewable energy source (e.g., solar, wind, hydropower).
- Fill a pros and cons table, analyzing the main factors.
Exercise 2. Energy planning for a country
You are part of a national energy advisory group. Your task is to develop a 10-year national energy transition plan for a country of your choice.
instructions
Consider the following aspects:
- Current energy mix and dependence on fossil fuel imports
- Potential for renewable energy expansion (wind, solar, hydro, geothermal, biomass)
- Role of nuclear energy or hydrogen as an alternative
- Key policies, incentives, and technological innovations needed
- Economic and geopolitical risks of the transition
Deliverable:
- Prepare a short policy briefing (300-400 words) outlining your recommendations. Include a justification for your proposed energy mix and potential challenges.
Evaluation
Quiz
- This quiz consists of 7 multiple-choice questions related to energy sources, environmental impact, and energy transition.
- Choose the correct answer for each question (only one per question).
- The quiz helps reinforce key concepts covered in the course.
Evaluation 1/7
Evaluation 2/7
Evaluation 3/7
Evaluation 4/7
Evaluation 5/7
Evaluation 6/7
Evaluation 7/7
Certificate
Congratulations!
Certificate of Completion
To receive an Open Badge for this course, please contact the local project partner: Kaunas University of Technology.
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Sources for figures and videos: [1] Energy. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/a-close-up-of-a-neon-sign-in-the-dark-rME-VNbk_zQ [2] Energy sources. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/energy-power-plant-icons-collection_1006437.htm#fromView=search&page=2&position=20&uuid=c89737a4-9cc6-470d-8334-183e42075464&query=energy+sources [3] Statistical review of world energy. Data retrieved from https://www.energyinst.org/statistical-review [4] Nuclear energy. Retrieved from https://www.pexels.com/photo/power-plant-near-the-grass-field-12982726 [5] Use of fossil fuels. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/white-and-black-ship-on-sea-under-white-clouds-TUJud0AWAPI [6] Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/skytruth/4733801040/in/photostream/ [7] Abandoned oil pumpjack. Retrieved from https://www.pexels.com/photo/rusted-pumpjack-in-the-desert-14377363/ [8] Energy transition. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/a-factory-with-smoke-billowing-out-of-its-stacks-ELbnYDoxido
Sources
Sources for figures and videos: [9] Renewable energy sources. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/3d-windmill-project-saving-energy_13328751.htm#fromView=search&page=1&position=2&uuid=5241c529-07e7-4044-86c5-b21a51bb573c&query=renewable+energy+sources [10] How do solar panels work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKxrkht7CpY [11] How do wind turbines work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xy9nj94xvKA [12] How does hydropower work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8HmRLCgDAI [13] How does geothermal energy work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCRDf7QxjDk [14] Wood pellets. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-ai-image/biofuel-pellets-presented-with-cut-logs-briquettes-daylight_84703577.htm#fromView=search&page=1&position=2&uuid=38c4cc99-bf28-4132-8177-093ff52ee4c5&query=wood+pellets [15] Energy saving. Data retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/female-planning-environment-projects_12168987.htm#fromView=search&page=1&position=0&uuid=c2bb9283-1434-4f96-878d-5d18c1e20e04&query=energy+saving [16] Renewable energy share in countries. Data retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis
Level completed!
Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the National Agency. Neither the European Union nor National Agency can be held responsible for them.
1.3 Energy Sources
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Energy Sources
Level 3: Advanced
Let's go!
Introduction
The global energy landscape is rapidly evolving due to technological advancements, policy shifts, and environmental challenges. Understanding energy systems at an is crucial for decision making, innovation, and effective energy management. This course provides a deep dive into different energy sources, transition strategies, emerging technologies, and energy policies that shape the future of energy. You will engage with complex problem solving examples, advanced case studies, and interactive questions to apply theoretical knowledge to real world energy challenges. By the end of this course, you will be be equipped to understand the differences between energy sources, evaluate energy policies, and understand the political implications of energy systems.
Start Course
Energy Sources Level 3: Advanced
Objectives
Modules
Exercises
Evaluation
Objectives
What will you learn?
Modules
Module 3: Fossil fuels and decarbonization pathways
Module 1: Introduction to the objectives
Module 2: What is energy and its sources?
Module 4: Renewable energy sources
Module 5: Energy transition and policies
Module 6: Conclusions
Energy and its transformation
Energy is the capacity to perform work, existing in various forms such as thermal, chemical, mechanical, and electrical energy. It drives all physical and technological processes and is essential for industrial, transportation, and household activities. There are various forms of energy, including kinetic (motion), thermal (heat), electrical, chemical, nuclear, and radiant (light) energy. These forms can be converted into one another through different processes.
Energy transformation occurs in everyday life. For example, in a power plant, chemical energy from fuel is converted into thermal energy, which is then transformed into mechanical energy to drive turbines, eventually generating electricity. Not all energy can be fully utilized; exergy represents the portion of energy that can be converted into work, while energy accounts for the total content. The efficiency of energy conversion is governed by the Laws of Thermodynamics. For example, thermal power plants operate under Carnot efficiency limits, meaning not all input energy is converted into usable electricity. Comparing the energy efficiency of a coal fired power plant (35-40%) vs. a combined cycle gas turbine (50-60%) highlights the importance of advanced energy technologies.
Figure 1. Energy [1]
Energy Sources
Energy sources are categorized into non-renewable and renewable
Renewable energy sources are derived are derived from naturally replenishing resources such as sunlight, wind, water, and biomass. They provide a long term sustainable alternative to fossil fuels but often require technological advancements to overcome intermittency and storage limitations.✅ Environmentally friendly with lower carbon emissions. ✅ Minimal operating costs once infrastructure is in place.✅ Sustainable and does not deplete over time. ❌ Higher initial investment costs and infrastructure development required.❌ Dependent on external factors like weather conditions (e.g., solar and wind energy). ❌ Large-scale installations require significant space and materials
Non-renewable energy sources are finite resources that deplete over time, such as coal, oil, natural gas, and uranium for nuclear power. They have high energy densities. While they provide a high energy output and infrastructure stability, their long-term sustainability is challenged by resource depletion and environmental concerns.✅Non-renewable sources produce large amounts of energy per unit.✅ Provides a stable and reliable energy supply.✅ Established power plants and distribution networks.❌ Contributes to climate change and environmental pollution.❌ Fossil fuels are being depleted over time. ❌ Air pollution and waste disposal challenges environmental and health issues.
Figure 2. Energy sources [2]
How can different energy sources complement each other to create a more resilient energy system?
Energy consumption globally and in the European Union
Figure 3. Energy consumption by its sources [3]
What factors drive energy mix decisions in different countries? How does geography, economy, and policy shape these choices?
Nuclear energy
Nuclear energy is generated through the fission process, where atoms of heavy elements (usually uranium-235 or plutonium-239) are split in a controlled reaction, releasing enormous amounts of heat. This heat is used to produce steam, which drives turbines to generate electricity.Nuclear reactors use a combination of control rods, moderators, and coolant systems to sustain and regulate the chain reaction safely.Nuclear fuel cycle includes mining, enrichment, power generation, and waste disposal. Unlike fossil fuels, nuclear power does not produce direct carbon dioxide emissions, making it a low-carbon energy source. However, it is not classified as renewable because it depends on finite resources.
Figure 4. Nuclear energy [4]
France generates over 70% of its electricity from nuclear power, reducing its reliance on fossil fuels. However, debates continue on whether nuclear should remain a key part of the energy transition or be replaced entirely by renewables.
Benefits and risks of nuclear energy
Benefits
Risks
Can nuclear energy be a longterm solution for reducing carbon emissions, or do its risks outweigh the benefits?
Energy tranformation and efficiency
Energy is constantly transformed from one form to another, e.g., Chemical energy (fossil fuels) → Thermal energy (heat) → Mechanical energy (turbines) → Electrical energy. Energy transformation always involves some energy loss, often in the form of heat. The second law of thermodynamics states that energy conversions are never 100% efficient, meaning optimizing energy use is crucial to reducing waste.
Several technological advancements help increase energy efficiency and minimize energy losses:
Smart grids
Efficient appliances
Advanced household and industrial devices (LED lighting, heat pumps, and high efficiency motors) consume less energy while delivering the same performance.
Intelligent electricity distribution networks that optimize power flow, reduce transmission losses, and integrate renewables efficiently.
Improve energy efficiency by storing excess electricity from renewable sources and releasing it when demand is high, balancing supply fluctuations.
Heat recovery systems
Battery storage systems
Capture and reuse waste heat from industrial processes, power plants, and buildings, increasing overall energy efficiency.
LED light bulbs convert nearly 90% of electricity into light, while traditional incandescent bulbs waste most energy as heat. This small technological shift has led to significant energy savings worldwide.
Comparison of energy sources
Table 1. Comparison of energy sources
Fossil fuels
Figure 5. Use of fossil fuels [5]
Fossil fuels — coal, oil, and natural gas — are carbon rich energy sources formed from the remains of ancient plants and microorganisms over millions of years. These fuels are extracted from underground reserves and processed for various applications, including electricity generation, transportation, and industrial processes. They are non-renewable, meaning they are long to form and are being consumed faster than they are replenished. Fossil fuels have been the dominant energy source since the Industrial Revolution due to their high energy density, ease of transportation, and established infrastructure. They have powered economic growth and still supply over 80% of the world's energy needs. Their affordability and existing supply chains make them difficult to phase out entirely in the short term. Despite their advantages, fossil fuels are finite resources and are subject to geopolitical fluctuations, price volatility, and extraction challenges. As energy demand grows, the long-term viability of fossil fuels is a subject of global debate.
Coal, oil, natural gas
Natural gas
Oil
Coal
Which of these fossil fuels has the greatest potential for cleaner use in the future, and what technologies can reduce their environmental impact?
Environmental impact of fossil fuels
Greenhouse gas emissions: Burning fossil fuels releases large amounts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) and methane (CH₄), which is 25 times more potent than CO₂ for global warming and climate change. The energy sector accounts for nearly 75% of global greenhouse gas emissions. Air pollution: Power plants, vehicles, and industry emit sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxides (NOₓ), and fine particulate matter, leading to cardiovascular and respiratory diseases. Urban areas with high coal dependency experience increased mortality rates due to prolonged exposure to air pollutants. Oil spills and habitat destruction: Offshore drilling and oil transportation accidents result in major environmental disasters, affecting marine life and coastal ecosystems. Open-pit mining for coal leads to severe land degradation, habitat destruction, and soil erosion.
Figure 6. Deepwater Horizon oil spill [6]
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) released nearly 4.9 million barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico, causing severe damage to marine ecosystems, local fisheries, and coastal economies.
Resource depletion of fossil fuels
Coal: Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel, but high-grade coal reserves are depleting in many regions. Estimated to last another 100-150 years, but extraction is declining due to stricter emissions regulations and declining demand in developed nations which reduces its viability.Oil: Oil is becoming more difficult to extract. Conventional oil reserves are depleting, pushing industries to extract unconventional sources such as oil sands and deepwater drilling, which require higher energy input and have larger carbon footprints. Global oil reserves could be depleted in the next 50 years based on current consumption rates.Natural gas: Estimated to last 50-60 years, but new reserves are occasionally discovered. However, reserves are finite, and extraction methods like hydraulic fracturing have raised environmental concerns. Methane leakage from extraction and transport infrastructure also raises concerns about its sustainability.
Figure 7. Abandoned oil pumpjack [7]
The Deepwater Horizon oil spill (2010) released nearly 4.9 million barrels of crude oil into the Gulf of Mexico, causing severe damage to marine ecosystems, local fisheries, and coastal economies.
Four major steps for decarbonization of energy
Decarbonization aims to reduce carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from energy production and consumption.
3. Carbon capture and storage
1. Transition to renewable sources
4. Development of electrification
2. Enhance energy efficiency
Norway’s near-100% renewable electricity grid enables a successful transition to electric vehicles and electrified public transport.
Ways to reduce dependency on fossil fuels
- Switch to renewable energy providers ☀️
Households and businesses can transition to electricity providers that generate power from wind, solar, hydro, and geothermal sources.Some countries allow energy consumers to choose their electricity mix, encouraging market driven renewable adoption.- Improve home energy efficiency 🏠
Implementing smart home technologies, energy efficient appliances, and better insulation can drastically reduce fossil fuel consumption for heating and electricity.Heat pumps and solar thermal systems provide low-carbon heating alternatives to gas and oil furnaces.- Use low-carbon transportation options 🚲
Walk, bike, use of public transport or car-sharing services instead of driving short distances by car can cut personal fuel consumption and emissionsFigure 8. Energy transition [8]
How can industries and consumers adapt to a world with fewer fossil fuels while ensuring economic stability and energy security?
Meaning of renewable energy
Definition of renewable energy
Why is renewable energy important?
Figure 9. Renewable energy sources [9]
'A transition to clean energy is about making an investment in our future' - Gloria Reuben
Solar energy
How solar energy works:Solar photovoltaic (PV) panels convert sunlight into electricity using semiconductor materials (e.g., silicon). Concentrated solar power (CSP) uses mirrors to focus sunlight, generating heat to produce electricity. Advances in perovskite solar cells and bifacial PV panels are increasing efficiency and reducing costs.Benefits:Unlimited energy potential; sunlight provides more energy in one hour than the world consumes in a year. Widely available, solar panels can be installed on homes, businesses, and large-scale farms with low operational costs.Challenges: Solar energy is only available during daylight hours. Large-scale solar farms require significant space. Solar panel production depends on rare materials (e.g., silver, indium) with supply chain concerns.
Video 1. How do solar panels work? [10]
Wind energy
How wind energy works:Wind turbines convert kinetic energy from moving air into mechanical power, which is transformed into electricity. Offshore wind farms capture stronger, more consistent winds, improving reliability. Innovations in floating wind turbines expand potential deployment areas.Benefits:A single modern wind turbine can power thousands of homes per year. Wind energy produces no direct emissions and requires little water compared to fossil fuel plants.Challenges: Wind speeds fluctuate, requiring storage solutions or grid balancing mechanisms. Some communities oppose wind farms due to their visual impact and noise levels. Can affect bird populations.
Video 2. How do wind turbines work? [11]
The Hornsea Wind Farm in the UK, one of the largest offshore wind farms, supplies electricity to over one million homes while reducing carbon emissions significantly.
Hydropower
How hydropower works:Dams and reservoirs store water, which is released through turbines to generate electricity. Run-of-river hydropower uses natural water flow without reservoirs, reducing ecological impact. Pumped storage hydropower (PSH) acts as a large scale battery by storing excess energy.Benefits:Hydropower plants have lifespans exceeding 50 years and achieve efficiencies of over 90%. Unlike solar and wind, hydropower provides continuous energy generation. Long lifespan with relatively low maintenance.Challenges: Dams disrupt river ecosystems, fish migration, and sediment transport impacting biodiversity. Building large-scale hydroelectric plants requires significant infrastructure costs and long construction timelines.
Video 3. How does hydropower work? [12]
Geothermal energy
How geothermal energy works:Geothermal energy harnesses heat from beneath the Earth's crust by drilling wells into geothermal reservoirs to produce steam, which powers turbines to generate electricity. Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) inject water into hot rock formations to expand geothermal potential. Direct use include district heating, industrial processes, and greenhouse farming.Benefits:Continuous, reliable power that can be used for both electricity and heating. Geothermal heat pumps can cut heating and cooling costs by up to 60% compared to fossil fuel systems. Minimal land footprint compared to solar or wind farms.Challenges: Limited to regions with geothermal activity. Requires high initial investment for drilling and infrastructure.
Video 4. How does geothermal energy work? [13]
Iceland generates nearly 90% of its heating needs from geothermal energy, making it a global leader in utilizing this renewable source for sustainable development.
Biomass energy
Benefits:
Biomass energy is derived from organic materials, such as wood, agricultural residues, and animal waste, that can be burned or converted into biofuels. Advanced technologies allow for the conversion of biomass into biogas, bioethanol, and biodiesel, which can replace traditional fossil fuels in heating, electricity generation, and transportation. Biomass can be used for direct combustion processes, or to produce biogas by anaerobic digestion, or for biofuelsproduction. Most common forms of biomass are wood pellets, biogas, and biodiesel.
Challenges:
Figure 10. Wood pellets [14]
How can biomass energy be scaled sustainably while minimizing its impact on land use and air quality?
Global and the European Union energy transition goals
Energy transition refers to the global shift from fossil fuel-based energy systems to renewable and low-carbon energy sources. This process involves changes in infrastructure, policies, and consumption patterns to reduce environmental impact and improve energy security.
Paris Agreement (2015) is global international agreement that sets global targets to limit temperature rise below 2°C. Over 190 countries are committed to set national climate targets, phasing out coal, and investing in renewables.
Net-zero targets: over 130 countries have pledged to reach net-zero emissions by midcentury, with leading economies like setting aggressive decarbonization roadmaps.
Phase out of fossil fue: coal use is declining in many regions, with some countries setting coal exit policies by 2030-2040.
European Union transition goals
By 2050:
By 2030:
2050
2030
1990
What other goals should be considered in efficient transition to sustainable energy?
National cases in Greece, Italy, and Austria for the energy transition
Greece
Italy
Figure 11. Energy saving [15]
Austria
Renewable energy in Lithuania, Greece, Italy, Bulgaria, and Austria energy mix
The share of renewable energy in the total energy mix varies due to differences in natural resource availability, policy incentives, energy infrastructure, and investment strategies. Leading in renewable energy adoption, with Lithuania leveraging wind, bioenergy, and growing offshore wind projects, while Austria maintains a strong hydropower sector, covering nearly 60% of its electricity needs. Italy invests heavily in floating solar farms and hydrogen production to complement renewables. Greece is leveraging its geographic position to develop hybrid renewable systems that integrate solar, wind, and pumped hydro storage. Bulgaria is historically reliant on coal, but transitioning with increasing investments in wind, biomass, and hydro energy. Bulgaria also started exploring geothermal energy potential. Still, a significant gap can be noticed between share in electricity and total energy consumption. While renewable sources contribute substantially to electricity production, their share in overall energy use remains lower due to continued reliance on fossil fuels in sectors like transportation, heating, and heavy industry.
Figure 12. Renewable energy share in countries (2023) [16]
What can help accelerate renewable energy adoption beyond electricity generation, particularly in heating and transportation?
National energy strategies in Lithuania, Greece, Italy, Bulgaria, and Austria
Lithuania
Greece
Italy
Bulgaria
Austria
Energy independence and geopolitics
Why is energy independence important?
Economic and social impacts of energy instability
Reduces dependency on external energy suppliers, making countries more resilient to geopolitical tensions.Countries with diversified energy sources are less vulnerable to geopolitical conflicts and economic sanctions.Strengthens national economic resilience by minimizing exposure to volatile global energy markets.
Rising energy prices affect consumers and industries, increasing the cost of living and slowing economic growth.Energy shortages lead to inflation, production slowdowns, and economic stagnation. Energy poverty rises, disproportionately impacting low income communities and developing nations.
Transitioning towards energy security
How wars affect energy prices?
Expanding renewable energy capacity reduces reliance on imported fossil fuels and stabilizes energy costs.Investing in energy storage and smart grids ensures more efficient distribution and resilience. Governments maintaining emergency energy stockpiles to counteract supply shocks.
The Russia-Ukraine war (2022) led to spikes in natural gas prices in Europe, prompting urgent energy diversification measures and accelerating the shift to renewables and LNG imports. Conflicts in major oil and gas producing regions cause supply disruptions and price volatility. Past conflicts like the 1973 Oil Crisis showcased how geopolitical instability can cripple economies reliant on fossil fuel imports.
National strategies to increase energy independence
How countries are reducing dependence on fossil fuels import?
Expanding renewable energy capacity (solar, wind, hydropower). Governments provide subsidies, tax incentives, and funding to accelerate the transition to renewables.
Countries are seeking alternative energy suppliers i. e. strengthening regional energy grids and LNG import to reduce reliance on natural gas of a single country.
Battery storage, interconnectors, hydrogen production, and smart grids are key to ensuring a stable supply of electricity from renewables.
Lithuania: LNG terminal for gas diversification to eliminate dependence on Russian gas imports; heavy investment in offshore wind energy. Greece: Accelerating solar and wind energy projects; interconnection projects with other EU countries. Italy: Increasing solar, wind, and hydrogen production, particularly in southern regions; interconnections with neighboring countries. Bulgaria: Transitioning from coal to a mix of natural gas and renewables; modernizing its energy grid for better efficiency. Austria: Strong focus on hydropower expansion; increasing cross-border energy cooperation with Germany and Switzerland for a more stable energy supply.
Which strategies are most effective in reducing reliance on imported fossil fuels, and how can countries accelerate these transitions?
Conclusions
How can we accelerate the global energy transition while balancing technological advancements, economic feasibility, and environmental sustainability?
Exercises
Exercise 2 Energy planning for a country
Exercise 1 Compare energy source
Your task is to develop a 10-year national energy transition plan for a country of your choice.
Evaluate different energy sources and recognize the factors influencing energy choices.
Exercise 1. Compare energy sources
Exercise 2. Energy planning for a country
You are part of a national energy advisory group. Your task is to develop a 10-year national energy transition plan for a country of your choice.
instructions
Consider the following aspects:
- Current energy mix and dependence on fossil fuel imports
- Potential for renewable energy expansion (wind, solar, hydro, geothermal, biomass)
- Role of nuclear energy or hydrogen as an alternative
- Key policies, incentives, and technological innovations needed
- Economic and geopolitical risks of the transition
Deliverable:Evaluation
Quiz
Evaluation 1/7
Evaluation 2/7
Evaluation 3/7
Evaluation 4/7
Evaluation 5/7
Evaluation 6/7
Evaluation 7/7
Certificate
Congratulations!
Certificate of Completion
To receive an Open Badge for this course, please contact the local project partner: Kaunas University of Technology.
Sources
Sources for text:
Sources
Sources for text:
Sources
Sources for figures and videos: [1] Energy. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/a-close-up-of-a-neon-sign-in-the-dark-rME-VNbk_zQ [2] Energy sources. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-vector/energy-power-plant-icons-collection_1006437.htm#fromView=search&page=2&position=20&uuid=c89737a4-9cc6-470d-8334-183e42075464&query=energy+sources [3] Statistical review of world energy. Data retrieved from https://www.energyinst.org/statistical-review [4] Nuclear energy. Retrieved from https://www.pexels.com/photo/power-plant-near-the-grass-field-12982726 [5] Use of fossil fuels. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/white-and-black-ship-on-sea-under-white-clouds-TUJud0AWAPI [6] Deepwater Horizon oil spill. Retrieved from https://www.flickr.com/photos/skytruth/4733801040/in/photostream/ [7] Abandoned oil pumpjack. Retrieved from https://www.pexels.com/photo/rusted-pumpjack-in-the-desert-14377363/ [8] Energy transition. Retrieved from https://unsplash.com/photos/a-factory-with-smoke-billowing-out-of-its-stacks-ELbnYDoxido
Sources
Sources for figures and videos: [9] Renewable energy sources. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/3d-windmill-project-saving-energy_13328751.htm#fromView=search&page=1&position=2&uuid=5241c529-07e7-4044-86c5-b21a51bb573c&query=renewable+energy+sources [10] How do solar panels work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKxrkht7CpY [11] How do wind turbines work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xy9nj94xvKA [12] How does hydropower work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q8HmRLCgDAI [13] How does geothermal energy work? Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCRDf7QxjDk [14] Wood pellets. Retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-ai-image/biofuel-pellets-presented-with-cut-logs-briquettes-daylight_84703577.htm#fromView=search&page=1&position=2&uuid=38c4cc99-bf28-4132-8177-093ff52ee4c5&query=wood+pellets [15] Energy saving. Data retrieved from https://www.freepik.com/free-photo/female-planning-environment-projects_12168987.htm#fromView=search&page=1&position=0&uuid=c2bb9283-1434-4f96-878d-5d18c1e20e04&query=energy+saving [16] Renewable energy share in countries. Data retrieved from https://www.eea.europa.eu/en/analysis
Level completed!
Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the National Agency. Neither the European Union nor National Agency can be held responsible for them.