Developed by:
Understanding
Human Elephant Conflict
Click here to start
Chapters
Let's start with Introduction.
Chapter 4. Human-Elephant Coexistence
Chapter 2. Safeguarding Giants
Introduction
Chapter 3. Human-Elephant Conflict
Chapter 1. The Legacy of Giants
Characters
Ele is a baby male elephant about two years old. He lives in a herd together with his mother, elder sister, two cousin brothers, two aunts, and his grandma. Ele loves to go on adventures to see the world.
Characters' background in this lesson.
Arif is a 19 year old boy who has recently started studying Agriculture at a local university. During his term break, he decided to take up an internship with a plantation near his house, where his father is working as well. Arif loves animals and is always curious about nature.
Arif
Little Ele
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Introduction
Arif asked Little Ele curiously, “Hi, I'm Arif, you seem lost, it is unusual to see a young elephant alone." Little Ele replied, “Hi Arif, I’m Little Ele. I… I am searching for my mother, and I can’t find her. Can you help me find my family?”
Let's start with Little Ele and Arif.
In the lush, green heart of Malaysia, I was born. As a baby elephant, I was always curious, eager to explore the world around me. The jungle was my playground, full of wonders to discover. One day, I wandered too far and got lost. The jungle gave way to unfamiliar trees. I had entered a vast plantation. I felt small and scared. As I wandered aimlessly, I suddenly heard a gentle voice calling out to me. I paused, unsure if it was a friend or foe. To my surprise, it was a kind-hearted man named Arif, who lived nearby.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
“Arif, I wish more people were like you. I'm sorry if we ate your crops. We don’t want to harm anyone; we just need to eat.” Arif continues, “How about we start by understanding each other better? Tell me how elephants like you have survived and adapted over millions of years.”
Are you ready to join the adventure of Little Ele and Arif? Click on “Legacy of Giants”.
Arif smiled and replied, “My father and I work in this plantation and we live nearby. I know this place well. We often see elephant herds near the riverside. Maybe your family is there. I’ll help you find them." As we walked towards the river at the plantation, Arif asked, “There must be a way for us to coexist, right?” I stopped and tried to recollect my past encounters with humans.
Legacy of Giants
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
chapter
Let me introduce you to my family—the elephants. Did you know we are the largest existing land mammals on Earth? Yep, that’s right! We’re the last remaining species of the Elephantidae family.
Stegodon
The Legacy of Giants
An Introduction to Elephants
Mammoth
Imagine that—we come from a long line of majestic ancestors like the woolly mammoths and the mighty stegodons!
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Our family tree goes way, way back. We first appeared on the African continent about 60 million years ago! Today, there are only three living species of elephants left:
- African forest elephant (Loxodonta cyclotis)
- African savanna elephant (Loxodonta africana)
- Asian elephant (Elephas maximus)
I’m an Asian elephant, and we live in South and Southeast Asia, in places with forests, grasslands, scrublands, swamps and riparian vegetations alongside rivers. In this chapter, we’re going to focus on Asian elephants—my family!
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
There are unfortunately two subspecies that went extinct. Asian elephants once roamed from West Asia to the Iranian coast, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, including Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and up to China.
Today, they’ve disappeared from 95% of their historical range and are extinct in West Asia, Java, and most of China.
There are four living subspecies of Asian elephants in 13 countries:
India
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Vietnam
Image: Range-wide elephant map (Fernando & Pastorini, 2011)
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Population Status of Asian Elephants
Arif looked at me with wide eyes and said,
“Oh! But...what is your conservation status Little Ele?”
Arif furrowed his brow. "So, how many Asian elephants are there left in the wild?" Little Ele paused, thinking. “Globally, we have about 40,000 to 50,000 left, but many are scattered in isolated populations. Around 72% are in India and Sri Lanka while the rest are spread across the remaining range states."
Image: Population of wild Asian elephants in respective range state (Fernando & Pastorini, 2011).
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Arif turns to Little Ele, looking sad,
"Oh no, your population is endangered! I’m sad to hear this." With a heavy sigh Little Ele replied, "Yes, Arif. Sadly, we’re listed as Endangered. Consider this, there are 1.55 billion domestic cattle and 1.2 billion sheep globally. Although I think elephants are heavy, but the weight of livestock is 10 times more than all wild mammals put together."
Image: The global biomass of mammals relative to humans and, livestock and pets. Source: Our World in Data, 2022.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Asian Elephants in Malaysia
“Did you know that only Malaysia and Indonesia have two different living subspecies of Asian elephants? It's something that not many people know of,” said Little Ele to Arif.
“What about your family here in Malaysia, Little Ele?”
“In Peninsular Malaysia, there are about 1223-1677 Asian elephants left, while our cousins in Sabah are around 1,000." In Malaysia, we have two subspecies of elephants:
- The mainland Asian elephant (Elephas maximus indicus),
- The Bornean pygmy elephant (Elephas maximus borneensis).
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
10
Arif looked at Ele, “Where can we find the elephants in Malaysia, Ele?”
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Distribution of Elephants in Malaysia
11
Excitedly, Arif points to various regions marked on the map. "Let’s keep our eyes open for signs and clues. We can find your family if we pay attention to our surroundings!" Arif continues studying the map.
"Well, my family can be found in 7 of the Peninsular States namely Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, Johor, Kedah and Negeri Sembilan. And our pygmy cousins are found in Sabah." As Arif and Little Ele continue walking, they suddenly stop in front of a large map displayed on a nearby tree.
"Look, Little Ele! This map shows where elephants like you can be found in Malaysia!"
Click here to explore the map together with Arif!
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Elephant Detection in Peninsular Malaysia
12
Click each region’s name to learn about the elephant population there.
Kedah
Perlis
Kelantan
Non-surveyed grids
Surveyed grids
Terengganu
Penang
Elephant detection (2012-2015)
Past elephant detection (1970’s-1980’s)
Perak
Pahang
Selangor
Wilayah Persekutuan
N. Sembilan
Melaka
Reveal Map
Johor
Image: Tan Seok Ling, 2016
Elephant Detection in Peninsular Malaysia
Kedah
Perlis
Kelantan
Terengganu
Penang
Perak
Pahang
Selangor
Wilayah Persekutuan
Non-surveyed grids
Surveyed grids
N. Sembilan
Elephant detection (2012-2015)
Melaka
Past elephant detection (1970’s-1980’s)
Johor
Image: Tan Seok Ling, 2016
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Elephant Distribution Range in Sabah and Sarawak
13
Click each region’s name to learn about the elephant population there.
Confirmed Range
Sabah
Possible Range
Former Range (2002)
Former Range (1980)
No Elephant Range
Sarawak
Reveal Map
Image: Alfred, 2011
Elephant Distribution Range in Sabah and Sarawak
Sabah
Sarawak
Confirmed Range
Possible Range
Former Range (2002)
Former Range (1980)
No Elephant Range
Image: Alfred, 2011
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
14
Arif’s expression turned serious. “What kind of threats do you face in the wild?”
"Well Arif. We face threats like human-elephant conflict, poaching, and habitat destruction. Let me share more about these dangers." Click "Safeguarding Giants" to proceed to the next chapter.
Little Ele stared at the map with sad eyes, "Once, we were found across all the states in Peninsular Malaysia…..”
“In just a generation or two, elephants have lost 68% of their range within human occupied areas. Currently in landscapes where elephants and humans are living together, 2/3 (two-thirds) are experiencing conflict.” “That’s worrying, Ele. There must be a way to transform conflict into coexistence and for us to live together harmoniously," says Arif to Little Ele.
Safeguarding Giants
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
15
chapter
"There are several threats that are endangering the Asian elephant population," Little Ele explained. "Let's watch a video before going through the explanations."
Click play button to start the video. Double-click the video to view it in full screen.
Safeguarding Giants
The Struggle to Preserve Asian Elephants
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
16
Asian elephants are endangered due to habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, and poaching. These threats come from large-scale development, habitat encroachment and other human activities. Preserving elephants is vital for maintaining natural habitats, ecosystem balance and for the survival of other species.
This is concerning as many of these developing countries have growing human populations and harbours important forests with diverse wildlife.
Habitat Loss
Southeast Asia has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the tropics.
Image: Percentage of Deforestation in Major Forest Countries between 2000 - 2012 (K Abdul Hamid et al., 2016).
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Fragmentation of Natural Forest in Peninsular Malaysia
17
Click on each year to see the fragmentation progressing over the years.
1970-1980
1990-2000
1954
1980-1990
2000-2018
Reveal Map
Image: National Physical Plan 2 & PERHILITAN, NECAP 2.0
Fragmentation of Natural Forest in Peninsular Malaysia
1954
1970-1980
1980-1990
1990-2000
2000-2018
Image: National Physical Plan 2 & PERHILITAN, NECAP 2.0
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Discover the causes of habitat destruction!
18
"I can see so much destruction around us. What causes all of this?” asked Little Ele. "There are many reasons why our forests are disappearing. We humans need space for development, food, and resources, but it’s affecting your family and the other animals in the forest," Arif replied.
Can you help Arif and Little Ele discover the four main causes of habitat destruction? Find out the causes of habitat destruction by dragging the flashlight to the backpack!
Find out the causes of habitat destruction by dragging the flashlight to the backpack!
Unsustainable Logging
Mining
Industrial Agriculture
Urbanisation (e.g., linear infrastructure and settlements)
Forest Plantations
Reveal
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Habitat Fragmentation
19
With a somber tone, Little Ele explained, “It’s not just habitat loss, Arif. Roads and railways cut through our home, making it hard to move between forest patches." Arif sadly responded, "That must feel like being trapped, Ele."
The image shows how habitat patches are disconnected (fragmentation) in human areas (e.g., agricultural land).
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
20
Arif asked, "Little Ele, you said urban areas and farming can affect your forests. Is there any way they can be part of the solution?" Little Ele explained to Arif, "Definitely! One solution is habitat connectivity. If cities and farmlands are planned with wildlife corridors, then animals like me can move safely between areas."
As they walked along the plantation border, Arif noticed a group of elephants gathered by the road.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Elephant-Vehicle Collisions
21
As they approached, Little Ele’s ears drooped slightly.
With sad eyes, Little Ele said, "No, that’s not my family. But they’re struggling to cross the road, just like we do."
Arif said with worry, "They look so scared. It must be hard for them to move safely across such a busy road."
Arif excitedly pointing ahead, "Ele! Look! There’re some elephants trying to cross the road! Could that be your family?"
Click play button to start the video. Double-click the video to view it in full screen.
With ears perking up, Little Ele has high hopes, "Maybe! Let’s get closer and see."
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
22
“I’m sorry to hear that, Ele. In collisions, even the human drivers get injured and sometimes killed. And these accidents also cause a lot of damage to the vehicles,” said Arif.
“There may be more roads in the future and if not planned properly, it may worsen things.” “Drivers need to slow down and watch for wildlife crossings. There must be ways to make these roads safer for everyone,” Arif continued.
“Indeed. These structures cut through our forests and impede our movement from one place to another,” explained Little Ele. “Some of my family members have died from vehicle collisions."
Image: A baby elephant killed in a vehicle collision in Peninsular Malaysia.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Effects of Roads on Wildlife
23
Click each item to learn more about it.
Image reproduced from (Dodd et al., 2024)
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
24
Thoughtfully, Arif said,"Little Ele, what happens when you move into human areas?" Little Ele elaborated, "Oh, if the farmers do not welcome us, then the situation is bleak too, Arif. We may wander into human areas nearby in search of food or water. And when that happens, it creates tension between us and the farmers. Let’s explore this further in the next chapter!”
Little Ele added, "Furthermore, Arif. When our habitats are fragmented, it provides easy access to forests for humans. In the forest, poachers can reach us more easily, and we become vulnerable to traps and hunting." Arif's eyes widened as he said, "So even when you’re deep in the forest, you’re not safe from harm?"
Little Ele's nod was solemn as he said, "That’s right, Arif. The forest should be our sanctuary, but it’s become a dangerous place because of poaching."
Human-Elephant Conflict
Click "Human-Elephant Conflict" to go to the next chapter.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
25
chapter
As elephant habitats become heavily fragmented and reduced in size, elephants end up in human areas like villages, farms, and plantations, searching for food. This leads to conflict. "So, what happens when elephants come into these areas?" Arif pondered aloud. Little Ele responded with a solemn nod, "Well, a lot of bad things can happen to both sides. Let’s find out more."
Human Elephant Conflict
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
What Happens During Human-Elephant Conflicts
26
Click on each image to learn on what happens during human-elephant conflicts
Damage to Property Elephants sometimes cause damage to property such as cars and houses when they enter human areas.
Damage to Crops Elephants are drawn to crops like palms, tree barks, and grasses as they match their natural diet. Large oil palm plantations are easy for elephants to access and forage.
Death or Injuries to Elephants Elephants can be injured in conflicts, trapped, or even poisoned or poached by humans in retaliation.
Death or Injuries to Humans When humans approached elephants too close, they may be accidentally injured or killed if the elephant feels threatened and attacks.
Disruption to Elephant Movement Pathways Elephant movement is impeded by barriers making it difficult for them to move from one feeding ground to the other.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
27
Little Ele, nodding, adds, "It’s a difficult situation, but by learning more, we can figure out ways to live together peacefully."
Arif, with a concerned expression, says, "This sounds really bad, Little Ele. What happens after these conflicts?" Little Ele, with a sad face, responds, "The conflicts lead to long-lasting grudges between humans and elephants." The tension leaves both sides suffering—humans deal with economic and social losses, while elephants face the danger of retaliatory attacks. Arif, looking grateful, says, "Thank you, Little Ele, for helping me understand more about this conflict."
Click here to learn more about conflict.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
28
"That's tragic, Little Ele," Arif said, his voice heavy. "I've heard of efforts worldwide to manage this conflict. Researchers are sharing knowledge to find solutions. In places like the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), they use wildlife corridors and beehive fences."
As they continued their journey, the conversation turned serious. Arif furrowed his brow, concerned. "Little Ele, how is the conflict situation in different parts of the world?" “Human-elephant conflict is widespread, even affecting our African cousins," Little Ele replied, his voice solemn. "Sadly, it results in many fatalities for both humans and elephants. In Asia, over 600 human and 450 elephant deaths are reported annually due to conflict, and the number for elephant deaths could be an underestimation."
He paused, then added, "In Malaysia, environmental and research groups too, are working hard to protect habitats and reduce conflicts. Collaboration is key."
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Conservation Organisations Working on Elephants in Malaysia
29
Click on each logo to learn more about the organisation.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Human Elephant Conflict in Malaysia
30
"The situation in Malaysia can be challenging. We struggle to survive in shrinking habitats. Sometimes, we encounter humans who are scared or angry because we’ve damaged crops or property while looking for food." Arif suggest, “Maybe we can learn more about how conflicts are happening in Malaysia.”
Image: AI- generated image of forest loss.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Understanding Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC) Complaints Across Peninsular Malaysia
31
Human-elephant conflict is reported to be one of the top human-wildlife conflict cases in Peninsular Malaysia.
Drag and drop each state label to the correct section of the pie chart. Once all labels are placed, reveal the answer to see how HEC complaints were distributed from 2015 to 2021.
From 2015 to 2021, complaints to the Wildlife Department rose by 143%, mostly involving crop raiding, wandering, property damage, and occasional human injuries or deaths—mainly in agricultural areas and nearby settlements.
Kelantan
Johor
Pahang
Terengganu
N. Sembilan
Kedah
Perak
Reveal
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
32
“I'm wondering about the fatalities created from HEC...” Arif thinks aloud.
Attacks often occur due to close encounters with elephants in plantations or forests, in the early morning or late evening when they are active.
Record of elephant attack on human by state in the Peninsular from 2015 to 2021
Record of elephant attack on human by state in the Peninsular from 2015 to 2021 (PERHILITAN & NRECC, 2023)
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Classifying Elephant Mortality Types (2015–2021)
33
Occasionally, elephants too may be harmed in conflict because of retaliatory killings through poaching or poisoning, out of frustration or losses faced by affected individuals. “How many elephants are killed by humans in Peninsular Malaysia?”
Drag and drop the appropriate mortality type labels onto the corresponding sections of the chart. After placing all labels, reveal the answers to understand the key causes and patterns of elephant mortality over this period.
Illegal Killing
Other
NA
Natural
Reveal
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
34
chapter
As Arif and Little Ele walked through the edges of the forest, a sound interrupted their conversation. Arif said excitedly, "I hear a trumpeting sound! Could it be…?"
Human-Elephant Coexistence
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
35
Little Ele nodded. "That’s a helpful idea!"
They quickly rushed toward the sound and found a group of elephants near a foodbank set up at the forest edge. Little Ele’s face lit up with joy. "It’s my family!" His family stood by the foodbank, munching on crops planted by communities as part of a coexistence initiative. Arif said, "That’s a grazing ground or also known as foodbank, Ele. It was created by the plantation community to divert elephants’ attention away from farmlands. By providing food here, it reduces the need for elephants to enter farms where they could cause damage."
Coexistence initiatives in action, partners from the ACE coalition along with MEME planting trees at a food bank area.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
What Does Coexistence Mean?
36
Help Little Ele understand coexistence! Click the correct words into the blank spaces.
share
Coexistence involves humans making conscious choices to _____________ landscapes and natural resources with wildlife.
share
control
restrict
This should be done in ___________________ ways.
exploitative
sustainable
sustainable
haphazard
cooperation
It requires ____________________ and agreement between different groups of people, even as conflicts arise and are understood, managed, and tolerated.
discord
competition
cooperation
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
37
Achieving Coexistence with Elephants (ACE) (click to see the website) focuses on:
Arif said reflectively, "This foodbank is a great example of coexistence. The plantation I’m from, collaborates with the team from the Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants (MEME) and other non-profit organisations on such projects." Little Ele asked, "What does MEME do?" Arif said, "MEME works to create safe spaces for elephants and promote harmony with humans. Among its initiatives is the Achieving Coexistence with Elephants (ACE) project, a coalition involving plantations, government bodies, NGOs, and other stakeholders."
- developing wildlife corridors,
- promoting sustainable land use, and
- educating communities to coexist peacefully with elephants in Peninsular Malaysia.
Click play button to start the video. Double-click the video to view it in full screen.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
38
"It shows that when everyone works together, we can create solutions that benefit both people and elephants," Arif continued, a hopeful note in his voice. The next time we meet, I can share with you the practices that ACE incorporates in my plantation to ensure safety for elephants and people."
Image: The image shows some of the participants from the ACE workshop in 2024. The workshop included site visits for knowledge exchange, ensuring effective collaboration and stakeholder engagement on human elephant conflict management between members of the coalition.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Closing
39
“We hope you found today’s lesson interesting too, and that it has exposed you to the various issues faced by elephants in the wild." Having grasped the gravity of human-elephant conflict, Arif and Little Ele now see the vital need to protect elephant habitats. In our next lesson, let's explore more ways to manage conflicts and help them coexist peacefully.
When co-existence exists...
Arif watched as Little Ele bounded forward, his heart swelling with happiness. “Thank you, Arif, for helping me find my family. It’s been a great and fruitful journey for us to know more about the efforts that plantations are putting in place to save elephants. I hope that we can work together to solve these issues and make harmonious coexistence a reality.”
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Thank you for learning about these challenges.By understanding the issues and recognising our role, we can move towards effective coexistence strategies for both elephants and humans.
40
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Mortality
Poses risk of vehicle damage and collisions increasing mortality and injuries.
Attractant
Garbage or natural food like grasses at roadsides can attract wildlife, including elephants.
Habitat fragmentation
Breaks up habitats and changes habitat conditions near roads and railways.
Elephant mortality types of classification record from 2015-2021
Note: The proportion of illegal killing comprises poaching and poisoning reports.
Image: Elephant mortality types of classification record from 2015-2021 (PERHILITAN & NRECC, 2023)
Continue
Pollution
Noise, chemicals, and lights near roads can scare animals away and make them avoid nearby habitats.
WCS Malaysia
The Wildlife Conservation Society Malaysia Program (WCS Malaysia) works to advance our understanding of key wildlife species through scientific research, significantly increase site protection efforts in collaboration with enforcement agencies, mitigate human-wildlife conflict, and engage local communities and the general public on the importance of protecting wildlife and their habitats.
Learn more at https://malaysia.wcs.org/.
MEME
The Malaysian Elephant Management & Ecology (MEME) project is committed to enhancing elephant conservation and management through science-based approaches. By conducting research, monitoring populations, and providing guidance to policymakers and local communities, MEME aims to safeguard elephants and foster human-elephant coexistence.
Find out more at https://www.meme-elephants.org/.
WWF
WWF-Malaysia was established in 1972 and is part of WWF, (World Wide Fund for Nature), the international conservation organisation. Working to sustain the natural world for the benefit of people and wildlife, WWF-Malaysia’s efforts to conserve nature focus on six major themes: forests, oceans, wildlife, food, climate and energy, as well as freshwater. Our mission is to stop the degradation of the earth’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.
Discover more at https://www.wwf.org.my/.
Seratu Aatai
Seratu Aatai is dedicated to fostering harmony between people and Bornean elephants in Sabah, Malaysia. Through research, community engagement, and collaborative efforts, it seeks sustainable solutions for human-elephant coexistence, promoting a balance that benefits both local communities and wildlife.
To learn more, visit their website at https://www.seratuaatai.org/.
Earthworm Foundation
Earthworm Foundation works towards transforming global supply chains to positively impact people and nature. By collaborating with companies, farmers, and local communities, it supports responsible sourcing, forest conservation, and improved livelihoods. The organisation champions ethical and sustainable practices that benefit all stakeholders.
Visit https://earthworm.org/ for further information.
Definition from IUCN
‘struggles that emerge when the presence or behaviour of wildlife poses actual or perceived, direct and recurring threats to human interests or needs, leading to disagreements between groups of people and negative impacts on people and/or wildlife’ (IUCN SSC HWCTF, 2020)
This module is developed by the Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants together with the Achieving Coexistence Elephants Coalition:
Learn more about the ACE Project at https://ace-coalition.com/home/
Hutan
HUTAN focuses on protecting endangered orang-utans and other wildlife in Sabah’s Lower Kinabatangan Floodplain. Combining scientific research, habitat restoration, community participation, and education, Hutan aims to ensure a vibrant and thriving ecosystem for present and future generations.
For further details, see https://www.hutan.org.my/.
Causes of Primary Habitat Loss/ Destruction
Habitat loss caused by deforestation for agriculture, permanent settlements, and infrastructures shrinks the natural habitat for elephants. In the remaining forest landscapes, the presence of human activities including roads and railways fragment habitats making it challenging for wildlife to navigate. Sometimes, wildlife wanders into human areas.
Continue
BORA
BORA (Bringing Back Our Rare Animals) is committed to preventing the extinction of endangered species and supporting their recovery in the wild. Working closely with government agencies, partners, and local communities, BORA employs targeted habitat management to help sustain or recover remaining clusters of rare species from the extinction trajectory.
To learn more, visit https://www.bringingbackourrareanimals.org/.
Graphs of fraction of HEC complaints according to Peninsular states from 2015 to 2021
Graph of fractions of HEC complaints according to Peninsular states from 2015 to 2021 (PERHILITAN & NRECC, 2023)
Continue
Barrier effect
Makes it difficult for wildlife to move between their home range areas.
MEME Lesson 1_Updated June 17
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Transcript
Developed by:
Understanding
Human Elephant Conflict
Click here to start
Chapters
Let's start with Introduction.
Chapter 4. Human-Elephant Coexistence
Chapter 2. Safeguarding Giants
Introduction
Chapter 3. Human-Elephant Conflict
Chapter 1. The Legacy of Giants
Characters
Ele is a baby male elephant about two years old. He lives in a herd together with his mother, elder sister, two cousin brothers, two aunts, and his grandma. Ele loves to go on adventures to see the world.
Characters' background in this lesson.
Arif is a 19 year old boy who has recently started studying Agriculture at a local university. During his term break, he decided to take up an internship with a plantation near his house, where his father is working as well. Arif loves animals and is always curious about nature.
Arif
Little Ele
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
Introduction
Arif asked Little Ele curiously, “Hi, I'm Arif, you seem lost, it is unusual to see a young elephant alone." Little Ele replied, “Hi Arif, I’m Little Ele. I… I am searching for my mother, and I can’t find her. Can you help me find my family?”
Let's start with Little Ele and Arif.
In the lush, green heart of Malaysia, I was born. As a baby elephant, I was always curious, eager to explore the world around me. The jungle was my playground, full of wonders to discover. One day, I wandered too far and got lost. The jungle gave way to unfamiliar trees. I had entered a vast plantation. I felt small and scared. As I wandered aimlessly, I suddenly heard a gentle voice calling out to me. I paused, unsure if it was a friend or foe. To my surprise, it was a kind-hearted man named Arif, who lived nearby.
Chapter 4
Chapter 2
Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 3
“Arif, I wish more people were like you. I'm sorry if we ate your crops. We don’t want to harm anyone; we just need to eat.” Arif continues, “How about we start by understanding each other better? Tell me how elephants like you have survived and adapted over millions of years.” Are you ready to join the adventure of Little Ele and Arif? Click on “Legacy of Giants”.
Arif smiled and replied, “My father and I work in this plantation and we live nearby. I know this place well. We often see elephant herds near the riverside. Maybe your family is there. I’ll help you find them." As we walked towards the river at the plantation, Arif asked, “There must be a way for us to coexist, right?” I stopped and tried to recollect my past encounters with humans.
Legacy of Giants
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Let me introduce you to my family—the elephants. Did you know we are the largest existing land mammals on Earth? Yep, that’s right! We’re the last remaining species of the Elephantidae family.
Stegodon
The Legacy of Giants
An Introduction to Elephants
Mammoth
Imagine that—we come from a long line of majestic ancestors like the woolly mammoths and the mighty stegodons!
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Our family tree goes way, way back. We first appeared on the African continent about 60 million years ago! Today, there are only three living species of elephants left:
I’m an Asian elephant, and we live in South and Southeast Asia, in places with forests, grasslands, scrublands, swamps and riparian vegetations alongside rivers. In this chapter, we’re going to focus on Asian elephants—my family!
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There are unfortunately two subspecies that went extinct. Asian elephants once roamed from West Asia to the Iranian coast, the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, including Sumatra, Java, Borneo, and up to China. Today, they’ve disappeared from 95% of their historical range and are extinct in West Asia, Java, and most of China.
There are four living subspecies of Asian elephants in 13 countries:
India
Bangladesh
Bhutan
Cambodia
China
Indonesia
Laos
Malaysia
Myanmar
Nepal
Sri Lanka
Thailand
Vietnam
Image: Range-wide elephant map (Fernando & Pastorini, 2011)
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Population Status of Asian Elephants
Arif looked at me with wide eyes and said, “Oh! But...what is your conservation status Little Ele?”
Arif furrowed his brow. "So, how many Asian elephants are there left in the wild?" Little Ele paused, thinking. “Globally, we have about 40,000 to 50,000 left, but many are scattered in isolated populations. Around 72% are in India and Sri Lanka while the rest are spread across the remaining range states."
Image: Population of wild Asian elephants in respective range state (Fernando & Pastorini, 2011).
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Arif turns to Little Ele, looking sad, "Oh no, your population is endangered! I’m sad to hear this." With a heavy sigh Little Ele replied, "Yes, Arif. Sadly, we’re listed as Endangered. Consider this, there are 1.55 billion domestic cattle and 1.2 billion sheep globally. Although I think elephants are heavy, but the weight of livestock is 10 times more than all wild mammals put together."
Image: The global biomass of mammals relative to humans and, livestock and pets. Source: Our World in Data, 2022.
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Asian Elephants in Malaysia
“Did you know that only Malaysia and Indonesia have two different living subspecies of Asian elephants? It's something that not many people know of,” said Little Ele to Arif.
“What about your family here in Malaysia, Little Ele?” “In Peninsular Malaysia, there are about 1223-1677 Asian elephants left, while our cousins in Sabah are around 1,000." In Malaysia, we have two subspecies of elephants:
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Arif looked at Ele, “Where can we find the elephants in Malaysia, Ele?”
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Distribution of Elephants in Malaysia
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Excitedly, Arif points to various regions marked on the map. "Let’s keep our eyes open for signs and clues. We can find your family if we pay attention to our surroundings!" Arif continues studying the map.
"Well, my family can be found in 7 of the Peninsular States namely Perak, Kelantan, Terengganu, Pahang, Johor, Kedah and Negeri Sembilan. And our pygmy cousins are found in Sabah." As Arif and Little Ele continue walking, they suddenly stop in front of a large map displayed on a nearby tree. "Look, Little Ele! This map shows where elephants like you can be found in Malaysia!"
Click here to explore the map together with Arif!
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Elephant Detection in Peninsular Malaysia
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Click each region’s name to learn about the elephant population there.
Kedah
Perlis
Kelantan
Non-surveyed grids
Surveyed grids
Terengganu
Penang
Elephant detection (2012-2015)
Past elephant detection (1970’s-1980’s)
Perak
Pahang
Selangor
Wilayah Persekutuan
N. Sembilan
Melaka
Reveal Map
Johor
Image: Tan Seok Ling, 2016
Elephant Detection in Peninsular Malaysia
Kedah
Perlis
Kelantan
Terengganu
Penang
Perak
Pahang
Selangor
Wilayah Persekutuan
Non-surveyed grids
Surveyed grids
N. Sembilan
Elephant detection (2012-2015)
Melaka
Past elephant detection (1970’s-1980’s)
Johor
Image: Tan Seok Ling, 2016
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Elephant Distribution Range in Sabah and Sarawak
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Click each region’s name to learn about the elephant population there.
Confirmed Range
Sabah
Possible Range
Former Range (2002)
Former Range (1980)
No Elephant Range
Sarawak
Reveal Map
Image: Alfred, 2011
Elephant Distribution Range in Sabah and Sarawak
Sabah
Sarawak
Confirmed Range
Possible Range
Former Range (2002)
Former Range (1980)
No Elephant Range
Image: Alfred, 2011
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Arif’s expression turned serious. “What kind of threats do you face in the wild?” "Well Arif. We face threats like human-elephant conflict, poaching, and habitat destruction. Let me share more about these dangers." Click "Safeguarding Giants" to proceed to the next chapter.
Little Ele stared at the map with sad eyes, "Once, we were found across all the states in Peninsular Malaysia…..” “In just a generation or two, elephants have lost 68% of their range within human occupied areas. Currently in landscapes where elephants and humans are living together, 2/3 (two-thirds) are experiencing conflict.” “That’s worrying, Ele. There must be a way to transform conflict into coexistence and for us to live together harmoniously," says Arif to Little Ele.
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"There are several threats that are endangering the Asian elephant population," Little Ele explained. "Let's watch a video before going through the explanations."
Click play button to start the video. Double-click the video to view it in full screen.
Safeguarding Giants
The Struggle to Preserve Asian Elephants
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Asian elephants are endangered due to habitat loss, human-wildlife conflict, and poaching. These threats come from large-scale development, habitat encroachment and other human activities. Preserving elephants is vital for maintaining natural habitats, ecosystem balance and for the survival of other species.
This is concerning as many of these developing countries have growing human populations and harbours important forests with diverse wildlife.
Habitat Loss
Southeast Asia has one of the highest rates of deforestation in the tropics.
Image: Percentage of Deforestation in Major Forest Countries between 2000 - 2012 (K Abdul Hamid et al., 2016).
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Fragmentation of Natural Forest in Peninsular Malaysia
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Click on each year to see the fragmentation progressing over the years.
1970-1980
1990-2000
1954
1980-1990
2000-2018
Reveal Map
Image: National Physical Plan 2 & PERHILITAN, NECAP 2.0
Fragmentation of Natural Forest in Peninsular Malaysia
1954
1970-1980
1980-1990
1990-2000
2000-2018
Image: National Physical Plan 2 & PERHILITAN, NECAP 2.0
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Discover the causes of habitat destruction!
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"I can see so much destruction around us. What causes all of this?” asked Little Ele. "There are many reasons why our forests are disappearing. We humans need space for development, food, and resources, but it’s affecting your family and the other animals in the forest," Arif replied. Can you help Arif and Little Ele discover the four main causes of habitat destruction? Find out the causes of habitat destruction by dragging the flashlight to the backpack!
Find out the causes of habitat destruction by dragging the flashlight to the backpack!
Unsustainable Logging
Mining
Industrial Agriculture
Urbanisation (e.g., linear infrastructure and settlements)
Forest Plantations
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Habitat Fragmentation
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With a somber tone, Little Ele explained, “It’s not just habitat loss, Arif. Roads and railways cut through our home, making it hard to move between forest patches." Arif sadly responded, "That must feel like being trapped, Ele."
The image shows how habitat patches are disconnected (fragmentation) in human areas (e.g., agricultural land).
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Arif asked, "Little Ele, you said urban areas and farming can affect your forests. Is there any way they can be part of the solution?" Little Ele explained to Arif, "Definitely! One solution is habitat connectivity. If cities and farmlands are planned with wildlife corridors, then animals like me can move safely between areas."
As they walked along the plantation border, Arif noticed a group of elephants gathered by the road.
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Elephant-Vehicle Collisions
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As they approached, Little Ele’s ears drooped slightly. With sad eyes, Little Ele said, "No, that’s not my family. But they’re struggling to cross the road, just like we do." Arif said with worry, "They look so scared. It must be hard for them to move safely across such a busy road."
Arif excitedly pointing ahead, "Ele! Look! There’re some elephants trying to cross the road! Could that be your family?"
Click play button to start the video. Double-click the video to view it in full screen.
With ears perking up, Little Ele has high hopes, "Maybe! Let’s get closer and see."
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“I’m sorry to hear that, Ele. In collisions, even the human drivers get injured and sometimes killed. And these accidents also cause a lot of damage to the vehicles,” said Arif. “There may be more roads in the future and if not planned properly, it may worsen things.” “Drivers need to slow down and watch for wildlife crossings. There must be ways to make these roads safer for everyone,” Arif continued.
“Indeed. These structures cut through our forests and impede our movement from one place to another,” explained Little Ele. “Some of my family members have died from vehicle collisions."
Image: A baby elephant killed in a vehicle collision in Peninsular Malaysia.
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Effects of Roads on Wildlife
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Click each item to learn more about it.
Image reproduced from (Dodd et al., 2024)
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Thoughtfully, Arif said,"Little Ele, what happens when you move into human areas?" Little Ele elaborated, "Oh, if the farmers do not welcome us, then the situation is bleak too, Arif. We may wander into human areas nearby in search of food or water. And when that happens, it creates tension between us and the farmers. Let’s explore this further in the next chapter!”
Little Ele added, "Furthermore, Arif. When our habitats are fragmented, it provides easy access to forests for humans. In the forest, poachers can reach us more easily, and we become vulnerable to traps and hunting." Arif's eyes widened as he said, "So even when you’re deep in the forest, you’re not safe from harm?" Little Ele's nod was solemn as he said, "That’s right, Arif. The forest should be our sanctuary, but it’s become a dangerous place because of poaching."
Human-Elephant Conflict
Click "Human-Elephant Conflict" to go to the next chapter.
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As elephant habitats become heavily fragmented and reduced in size, elephants end up in human areas like villages, farms, and plantations, searching for food. This leads to conflict. "So, what happens when elephants come into these areas?" Arif pondered aloud. Little Ele responded with a solemn nod, "Well, a lot of bad things can happen to both sides. Let’s find out more."
Human Elephant Conflict
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What Happens During Human-Elephant Conflicts
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Click on each image to learn on what happens during human-elephant conflicts
Damage to Property Elephants sometimes cause damage to property such as cars and houses when they enter human areas.
Damage to Crops Elephants are drawn to crops like palms, tree barks, and grasses as they match their natural diet. Large oil palm plantations are easy for elephants to access and forage.
Death or Injuries to Elephants Elephants can be injured in conflicts, trapped, or even poisoned or poached by humans in retaliation.
Death or Injuries to Humans When humans approached elephants too close, they may be accidentally injured or killed if the elephant feels threatened and attacks.
Disruption to Elephant Movement Pathways Elephant movement is impeded by barriers making it difficult for them to move from one feeding ground to the other.
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Little Ele, nodding, adds, "It’s a difficult situation, but by learning more, we can figure out ways to live together peacefully."
Arif, with a concerned expression, says, "This sounds really bad, Little Ele. What happens after these conflicts?" Little Ele, with a sad face, responds, "The conflicts lead to long-lasting grudges between humans and elephants." The tension leaves both sides suffering—humans deal with economic and social losses, while elephants face the danger of retaliatory attacks. Arif, looking grateful, says, "Thank you, Little Ele, for helping me understand more about this conflict."
Click here to learn more about conflict.
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"That's tragic, Little Ele," Arif said, his voice heavy. "I've heard of efforts worldwide to manage this conflict. Researchers are sharing knowledge to find solutions. In places like the Kavango Zambezi Transfrontier Conservation Area (KAZA), they use wildlife corridors and beehive fences."
As they continued their journey, the conversation turned serious. Arif furrowed his brow, concerned. "Little Ele, how is the conflict situation in different parts of the world?" “Human-elephant conflict is widespread, even affecting our African cousins," Little Ele replied, his voice solemn. "Sadly, it results in many fatalities for both humans and elephants. In Asia, over 600 human and 450 elephant deaths are reported annually due to conflict, and the number for elephant deaths could be an underestimation."
He paused, then added, "In Malaysia, environmental and research groups too, are working hard to protect habitats and reduce conflicts. Collaboration is key."
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Conservation Organisations Working on Elephants in Malaysia
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Click on each logo to learn more about the organisation.
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Human Elephant Conflict in Malaysia
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"The situation in Malaysia can be challenging. We struggle to survive in shrinking habitats. Sometimes, we encounter humans who are scared or angry because we’ve damaged crops or property while looking for food." Arif suggest, “Maybe we can learn more about how conflicts are happening in Malaysia.”
Image: AI- generated image of forest loss.
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Understanding Human-Elephant Conflict (HEC) Complaints Across Peninsular Malaysia
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Human-elephant conflict is reported to be one of the top human-wildlife conflict cases in Peninsular Malaysia.
Drag and drop each state label to the correct section of the pie chart. Once all labels are placed, reveal the answer to see how HEC complaints were distributed from 2015 to 2021.
From 2015 to 2021, complaints to the Wildlife Department rose by 143%, mostly involving crop raiding, wandering, property damage, and occasional human injuries or deaths—mainly in agricultural areas and nearby settlements.
Kelantan
Johor
Pahang
Terengganu
N. Sembilan
Kedah
Perak
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“I'm wondering about the fatalities created from HEC...” Arif thinks aloud.
Attacks often occur due to close encounters with elephants in plantations or forests, in the early morning or late evening when they are active.
Record of elephant attack on human by state in the Peninsular from 2015 to 2021
Record of elephant attack on human by state in the Peninsular from 2015 to 2021 (PERHILITAN & NRECC, 2023)
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Classifying Elephant Mortality Types (2015–2021)
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Occasionally, elephants too may be harmed in conflict because of retaliatory killings through poaching or poisoning, out of frustration or losses faced by affected individuals. “How many elephants are killed by humans in Peninsular Malaysia?”
Drag and drop the appropriate mortality type labels onto the corresponding sections of the chart. After placing all labels, reveal the answers to understand the key causes and patterns of elephant mortality over this period.
Illegal Killing
Other
NA
Natural
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As Arif and Little Ele walked through the edges of the forest, a sound interrupted their conversation. Arif said excitedly, "I hear a trumpeting sound! Could it be…?"
Human-Elephant Coexistence
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Little Ele nodded. "That’s a helpful idea!"
They quickly rushed toward the sound and found a group of elephants near a foodbank set up at the forest edge. Little Ele’s face lit up with joy. "It’s my family!" His family stood by the foodbank, munching on crops planted by communities as part of a coexistence initiative. Arif said, "That’s a grazing ground or also known as foodbank, Ele. It was created by the plantation community to divert elephants’ attention away from farmlands. By providing food here, it reduces the need for elephants to enter farms where they could cause damage."
Coexistence initiatives in action, partners from the ACE coalition along with MEME planting trees at a food bank area.
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What Does Coexistence Mean?
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Help Little Ele understand coexistence! Click the correct words into the blank spaces.
share
Coexistence involves humans making conscious choices to _____________ landscapes and natural resources with wildlife.
share
control
restrict
This should be done in ___________________ ways.
exploitative
sustainable
sustainable
haphazard
cooperation
It requires ____________________ and agreement between different groups of people, even as conflicts arise and are understood, managed, and tolerated.
discord
competition
cooperation
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Achieving Coexistence with Elephants (ACE) (click to see the website) focuses on:
Arif said reflectively, "This foodbank is a great example of coexistence. The plantation I’m from, collaborates with the team from the Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants (MEME) and other non-profit organisations on such projects." Little Ele asked, "What does MEME do?" Arif said, "MEME works to create safe spaces for elephants and promote harmony with humans. Among its initiatives is the Achieving Coexistence with Elephants (ACE) project, a coalition involving plantations, government bodies, NGOs, and other stakeholders."
Click play button to start the video. Double-click the video to view it in full screen.
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"It shows that when everyone works together, we can create solutions that benefit both people and elephants," Arif continued, a hopeful note in his voice. The next time we meet, I can share with you the practices that ACE incorporates in my plantation to ensure safety for elephants and people."
Image: The image shows some of the participants from the ACE workshop in 2024. The workshop included site visits for knowledge exchange, ensuring effective collaboration and stakeholder engagement on human elephant conflict management between members of the coalition.
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Closing
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“We hope you found today’s lesson interesting too, and that it has exposed you to the various issues faced by elephants in the wild." Having grasped the gravity of human-elephant conflict, Arif and Little Ele now see the vital need to protect elephant habitats. In our next lesson, let's explore more ways to manage conflicts and help them coexist peacefully.
When co-existence exists...
Arif watched as Little Ele bounded forward, his heart swelling with happiness. “Thank you, Arif, for helping me find my family. It’s been a great and fruitful journey for us to know more about the efforts that plantations are putting in place to save elephants. I hope that we can work together to solve these issues and make harmonious coexistence a reality.”
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Thank you for learning about these challenges.By understanding the issues and recognising our role, we can move towards effective coexistence strategies for both elephants and humans.
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Mortality
Poses risk of vehicle damage and collisions increasing mortality and injuries.
Attractant
Garbage or natural food like grasses at roadsides can attract wildlife, including elephants.
Habitat fragmentation
Breaks up habitats and changes habitat conditions near roads and railways.
Elephant mortality types of classification record from 2015-2021
Note: The proportion of illegal killing comprises poaching and poisoning reports.
Image: Elephant mortality types of classification record from 2015-2021 (PERHILITAN & NRECC, 2023)
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Pollution
Noise, chemicals, and lights near roads can scare animals away and make them avoid nearby habitats.
WCS Malaysia
The Wildlife Conservation Society Malaysia Program (WCS Malaysia) works to advance our understanding of key wildlife species through scientific research, significantly increase site protection efforts in collaboration with enforcement agencies, mitigate human-wildlife conflict, and engage local communities and the general public on the importance of protecting wildlife and their habitats.
Learn more at https://malaysia.wcs.org/.
MEME
The Malaysian Elephant Management & Ecology (MEME) project is committed to enhancing elephant conservation and management through science-based approaches. By conducting research, monitoring populations, and providing guidance to policymakers and local communities, MEME aims to safeguard elephants and foster human-elephant coexistence.
Find out more at https://www.meme-elephants.org/.
WWF
WWF-Malaysia was established in 1972 and is part of WWF, (World Wide Fund for Nature), the international conservation organisation. Working to sustain the natural world for the benefit of people and wildlife, WWF-Malaysia’s efforts to conserve nature focus on six major themes: forests, oceans, wildlife, food, climate and energy, as well as freshwater. Our mission is to stop the degradation of the earth’s natural environment and to build a future in which humans live in harmony with nature.
Discover more at https://www.wwf.org.my/.
Seratu Aatai
Seratu Aatai is dedicated to fostering harmony between people and Bornean elephants in Sabah, Malaysia. Through research, community engagement, and collaborative efforts, it seeks sustainable solutions for human-elephant coexistence, promoting a balance that benefits both local communities and wildlife.
To learn more, visit their website at https://www.seratuaatai.org/.
Earthworm Foundation
Earthworm Foundation works towards transforming global supply chains to positively impact people and nature. By collaborating with companies, farmers, and local communities, it supports responsible sourcing, forest conservation, and improved livelihoods. The organisation champions ethical and sustainable practices that benefit all stakeholders.
Visit https://earthworm.org/ for further information.
Definition from IUCN
‘struggles that emerge when the presence or behaviour of wildlife poses actual or perceived, direct and recurring threats to human interests or needs, leading to disagreements between groups of people and negative impacts on people and/or wildlife’ (IUCN SSC HWCTF, 2020)
This module is developed by the Management & Ecology of Malaysian Elephants together with the Achieving Coexistence Elephants Coalition:
Learn more about the ACE Project at https://ace-coalition.com/home/
Hutan
HUTAN focuses on protecting endangered orang-utans and other wildlife in Sabah’s Lower Kinabatangan Floodplain. Combining scientific research, habitat restoration, community participation, and education, Hutan aims to ensure a vibrant and thriving ecosystem for present and future generations.
For further details, see https://www.hutan.org.my/.
Causes of Primary Habitat Loss/ Destruction
Habitat loss caused by deforestation for agriculture, permanent settlements, and infrastructures shrinks the natural habitat for elephants. In the remaining forest landscapes, the presence of human activities including roads and railways fragment habitats making it challenging for wildlife to navigate. Sometimes, wildlife wanders into human areas.
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BORA
BORA (Bringing Back Our Rare Animals) is committed to preventing the extinction of endangered species and supporting their recovery in the wild. Working closely with government agencies, partners, and local communities, BORA employs targeted habitat management to help sustain or recover remaining clusters of rare species from the extinction trajectory.
To learn more, visit https://www.bringingbackourrareanimals.org/.
Graphs of fraction of HEC complaints according to Peninsular states from 2015 to 2021
Graph of fractions of HEC complaints according to Peninsular states from 2015 to 2021 (PERHILITAN & NRECC, 2023)
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Barrier effect
Makes it difficult for wildlife to move between their home range areas.