Pleistocene Epoch

(2.58 million – 11,700 years ago) Cenozoic Era

Pleistocene Epoch

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• Megafauna dominated many ecosystems, including woolly mammoths, mastodons, saber-toothed cats, and giant ground sloths.
• Early human species (e.g., Homo erectus, later Homo sapiens) lived during this epoch, migrating across the globe and learning to adapt to harsh climates.
• In milder regions, forests and grasslands supported smaller mammals, birds, and early plant species resilient to temperature extremes.

The Earth experienced multiple glacial (colder) and interglacial (warmer) periods. Massive ice sheets blanketed large parts of North America, Europe, and Asia, sometimes reaching thicknesses of over two miles. Sea levels dropped significantly during colder phases, exposing land bridges—such as the Bering Land Bridge—that connected continents. These fluctuating conditions created a mix of tundra, steppe, and grassland habitats across much of the northern hemisphere.

World Conditions

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Montanez, Isabel P, and Christopher J Poulsen. “The Late Paleozoic Ice Age: An Evolving Paradigm.” Annual review of earth and planetary sciences 41.1 (2013): 629–629. Web.

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One of the most notable events was the repeated advance and retreat of massive ice sheets, commonly referred to as the Ice Ages. These glacial cycles drastically affected global sea levels, weather patterns, and the distribution of plants and animals. Glaciers sculpted many present-day landscapes, leaving behind features such as the Great Lakes in North America and fjords in Scandinavia. As conditions warmed toward the end of the Pleistocene, many large mammals went extinct—a phenomenon often linked to both rapid climate change and human hunting pressures.

Major Event The Ice Age

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“Reviving Pleistocene Life.” American scientist 109.5 (2021): 273-. Print.

• Land Bridges: Dramatically lowered sea levels exposed pathways such as the Bering Land Bridge between Asia and North America, allowing humans and animals to migrate to new territories.
• Thick Ice Sheets: In some areas, glacial ice extends over 3,000 meters thick, reshaping entire regions through erosion and deposition.
• Human Technological Advances: Evidence shows that humans during the Pleistocene developed improved tools and possibly the first known forms of artistic expression, such as cave paintings.
• Megafaunal Diversity: Besides mammoths and saber-toothed cats, the epoch hosted unusual creatures like the giant beaver (up to 2.4 meters long) and the short-faced bear, one of the largest bear species in history.
• Impact on Global Climate: The cyclical nature of glaciations influenced ocean currents and wind patterns, playing a key role in shaping global climates up to the modern day.

Rapid climate change and human activity

80%

• of the Earths water was locked in ice
• of large mammal species met their end during this period

Interesting Facts