The Virtual Anatomy Museum
Explore the past, present, and future of anatomy at the University of Cambridge
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Welcome to the Virtual Anatomy Museum!
'An “exploded” skull gazes from the dark. Next to it, an early 20th century woman’s deformed foot in a jar and a syphilitic cranium hold stories of the past and doorways to the future.'
The teaching of anatomy, dissection and the study of bodies have played a central role as part of the medical training in Cambridge since mid-16th century. They are also the remnants of what used to be one of the largest anatomical collections during the 19th century Europe. A collection such as that of the Museum in the Cambridge Anatomy School is still extremely important today, relevant not only for continuing medical training, but also for the insights it can provide in the history of medicine and of medical institutions, and for understanding the perspectives on the human body that have been central to their development. It is the aim of this virtual museum to bring this closer to the contemporary audiences.
Beauchene skull
Bone with brass connections and wires. Mid to late 19th century. Maison Tramond.
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Anatomy throughout history
Anatomy today
The future of anatomy
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
Anatomy throughout history
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All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
History of Anatomy
The teaching of anatomy, dissection, and the study of bodies have played a central role as part of the medical training in Cambridge since the mid-16th century. Inside this section, you will immerse yourself in the evolution of anatomical study in Ancient Greece, Persia, and Rome through its development in Europe to the present day. You will also explore the advent and progression of anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge.
Read about the first human anatomy museum at Cambridge
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Learn about events that shaped the way we view anatomy
Explore the history of anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge
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The museum of human anatomy at Cambridge
'The chief attraction of the museum is the magnificent collection which it contains of human crania...[which is] the second largest in Great Britain" (p.1532)
There has been an anatomy museum at Cambridge for centuries, beginning in 1836 when an existing collection was united a 21-year old museum formed by Professor MacCartney of Trinity College, Dublin and purchased by Professor Clark of Cambridge. One of the earliest accounts of this museum appears in The Lancet, an independent, international general medical journal founded in 1823 by Thomas Wakley. The article appears in Volume 142, Issue 3668, on 16 December 1893. It describes the history, location, layout, and some of the content of the museum, particularly the "Crania Britannica" collection, which was used to "study the physical characters of the successesive races who peopled this portion of Great Britain in the neolithic, the bronze, the Roman, and the Saxon periods" (p.1532). It de
Adult skull on to which have been added in blue paint the superficial blood vessels
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How the past shapes the present
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701CE
460BCE
During the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars made significant contributions to the field of anatomy, advancing the knowledge of Ancient Greek physicians
Anatomy first started in ancient Egypt and Greece with burial rituals and dissections
162BCE
More detailed study of anatomy came with the Romans and seminal individuals such as Galen further dissecting animals
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How the past shapes the present
Section menu
1900s
1400s
By the 15th century, anatomical knowledge began to advance significantly due to the interest of artists and scholars in representing the body
The 19th and 20th centuries were transformative periods for the study of anatomy, marked by groundbreaking work in research methodology, as well as medical education
1800s
In 19th century Scotland, the Burke and Hare case sent shockwaves through the field of anatomy and impacted heavily on medical education
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History of anatomy at Cambridge map
Click on the blue numbers to hear from Professor David Riches about the evolution of anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge
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Anatomy today
Continue
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The skull
The human skull is a complex structure made up of 22 bones that form the framework of the head. It provides protection for the brain, houses sensory organs, and supports the muscles used for chewing, speaking, and facial expressions. Start by clicking on the circles located in the various sections of the skull displayed on the right-hand side to explore and learn more about the different sections of the brain!
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The skull and cranial nerves
The cranial nerves, a set of 12 paired nerves, originate from the brain and brainstem, controlling various sensory and motor functions in the head and neck. Click on the blue dots located in the various sections of the skull and cranial nerves in the anterior view displayed on the right-hand side. Each circle highlights a specific nerve. Explore to learn how these parts work together to support essential life functions!
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The working brain
Click on the different images to learn more.
Explore various brain specimens from the Anatomy Museum at the University of Cambridge, showcasing different sections and structures of the brain.
On the left the white and grey matter of the cerebral cortex... Click the blue dot to learn more!
The specimen on the left reveals internal structures such as... Click the blue dot to learn more!
The specimen on the left shows the Circle of Willis...Click the blue dot to learn more!
These specimens show a brain with half of the cerebellum removed.Click the blue dot to learn more!
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Brain Pathologies
Ischaemic stroke
Haemorrhagic stroke
I. Stroke
The brain is supplied by a complex network ofarteries and smaller vessels that provide it with a constant flow of oxygenated blood. When thissupply is disrupted, parts of the brain no longerreceiving blood can die, leading to a stroke. Click on the images on the right hand side to learn more about the two types of stroke.
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Brain Pathologies
I. Cerebellar Agenesis
In the specimens on the right we see a rare condition in which the brain has not developed a cerebellum, known as cerebellar agenesis.
Click on the images on the right hand side to learn more.
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Test yourself
In this section, you will have the opportunity to try our interactive test and check your understanding of the working brain and brain pathologies. Have a go here to see how many you can get right!
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The future of anatomy
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Temporal
The temporal lobe is located on the sides of the brain. Key functions include: 1. Auditory Processing: The temporal lobe contains the auditory cortex, which processes sounds and enables the recognition of speech and music. 2. Memory Formation: It houses the hippocampus, essential for forming and retrieving long-term memories. 3. Language Understanding: The left temporal lobe typically contains Wernicke's area, which is responsible for language comprehension. 4. Emotional Processing: The temporal lobe also contributes to interpreting emotions and social cues through its connection with the limbic system. Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to issues like impaired memory, difficulty understanding language, or changes in emotional responses.
The Dawning of Anatomy in Cambridge. Cambridge University was founded in 1209 and it included a Faculty of Physic, which in modern terms means medicine. The early anatomical teaching would have taken place by reading classical texts based largely on those of Galen. It was not until 1549 that the study of anatomy became a statutory requirement for medicine.
List of contributors (2015-2024)
Dr Jenny Barna, IT Business Manager,School of Biological Sciences (SBS)Mr Ian Bolton, Anatomy Visual Media Group, Department of Physiology, Development, and Neurology (PDN) Dr Cecilia Brassett, Clinical Anatomist, PDN, Dr Isla Fay, Human Anatomy Technical Coordinatory, PDN Mr Roberto Inchingolog, Communications Coordinator, PDN Dr Alexandra Ion, Research Associate McDonald Institute for Archeological Research ETC ETC
https://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/
Ischemic Stroke
The image on the left presents a coronal section showing an ischaemic stroke where a blocked artery has resulted in the death of a part of the brain. This stroke would have been fatal.
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The Persian polymath
Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna (980-1037AD), was a Persian polymath renowned for his contributions to anatomy and medicine. His work "The Canon of Medicine" integrated and expanded anatomical knowledge of his time, detailing the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems with a focus on empirical obseration. Despite restrictions on human dissection, he advocated for anatomical study through animal dissection, advancing understanding of organs and their functions.
Optic nerve (CN II)
The optic nerve (cranial nerve II) is a purely sensory nerve responsible for transmitting visual information from the retina to the brain. It plays a crucial role in the sense of sight. Key features include:
1. Visual Signal Transmission: The optic nerve carries electrical impulses generated by the photoreceptors in the retina (rods and cones) to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain for processing.
2. Pathway: The nerve exits the eye through the optic disc, travels through the optic canal, and partially crosses at the optic chiasm, where signals from the visual fields are reorganized before reaching the brain.
Damage to the optic nerve can result in vision loss or visual field defects, such as blindness or tunnel vision, depending on the location and severity of the injury. It is vital for visual perception and spatial awareness.
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Frontal
The frontal lobe is the largest part of the brain's cerebral cortex, located at the front of the skull. It plays a crucial role in higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and controlling voluntary movements. It is also responsible for personality, behaviour regulation, and emotional expression. Key areas within the frontal lobe include:
1. Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in complex thought, planning, decision-making, and moderating social behaviour.
2. Motor Cortex: Responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movements.
3. Broca’s Area: Found in the left frontal lobe, it is critical for speech production.
Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in personality, difficulty in problem-solving, and impaired motor skills.
Galenic theory
Galen, a prominent Greek physician, who lived from 129-216CE, made substantial contributions to the field of anatomy. Working in Rome, he conducted extensive animal dissections, as human dissection was largely forbidden, which allowed him to make significant discoveries about the human body. Galen's detailed observations and meticulous documentation of muscles, nerves, and organs, formed the cornerstone of anatomical knowledge for over a millennium. He introduced the concept of the circulatory system, describing the heart's role in pumping blood, although he inaccurately believed blood flowed in a two-way system. Galen's work on the nervous system, where he differentiated between senory and motor nerves, was groundbreaking. His theories on physiology and disease were compiled in numerous texts that dominated medical education and practice throughout the Middle Ages.
Galen's Physiological schema. Photo number: L0024393 http://catalogue.wellcomelibrary.org/record=b1271877
The working brain
The specimen on the left shows the Circle of Willis a ring-like structure made up of interconnected arteries which is present in the base of the brain. This can also be seen in the specimen on the right. The Circle of Willis is important in supplying the anterior portion of the brain with a consistent supply of oxygenated blood and is itself supplied by key arteries such as the internal carotid artery. The ring-like structure means that if sections are blocked or narrowed blood can still continue to flow and supply the brain.
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Oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III)
The oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III) is a motor nerve that plays a critical role in controlling eye movement and regulating pupil size. Key functions include: 1. Controls most of the eye's movement by innervating the: - Superior rectus: Moves the eye upward. - Inferior rectus: Moves the eye downward. - Medial rectus: Moves the eye inward. - Inferior oblique: Helps rotate the eye upward and outward. - Levator palpebrae superioris: Lifts the upper eyelid. 2. Parasympathetic Functions: Regulates the size of the pupil (pupil constriction) and lens shape for focusing (accommodation) by innervating the sphincter pupillae and ciliary muscles. The oculomotor nerve is essential for coordinated eye movements, focusing vision, and controlling light entry into the eye. Damage to this nerve can result in drooping eyelids (ptosis), double vision, and difficulty moving the eye.
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The Father of Medicine
Hippocrates, who lived around 460-370BCE, is often called the "Father of Medicine." This ancient Greek physician transformed how people thought about health and the human body. Instead of blaming disease on the gods, Hippocreates urged doctors to carefully observe their patients and note their symptoms. His detailed writings, known as the Hippocratic Corpus, offered some of the first systematic descriptions of human anatomy and illness.Though human dissection was forbidden in his time, Hippocrates promoted the study of animal anatomy to gain insights into human physiology. He described various anatomical features, such as bones, muscles, and organs, emphasizing their functions and interconnections. Hippocrates also introduced the concept of the four humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) which, despite being incorrect, shaped medical thinking for centuries.
Book illustration in “Quinta Essentia” by Leonhart Thurneisser zum Thurn (gen. Leonhard Thurneysser). 1574
Source: http://www.arsgravis.com/UserFiles/image/Andrigino_NOU/androgino7.jpg
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
The trochlear nerve (cranial nerve IV) is a motor nerve responsible for controlling one specific muscle of the eye: the superior oblique muscle. It is the smallest cranial nerve and the only one that exits the brainstem dorsally (from the back of the brainstem). Key functions include: Eye Movement: The trochlear nerve enables the superior oblique muscle to: - Rotate the eye downward and inward (intorsion). - Assist in controlling smooth, coordinated eye movements. This function is essential for actions like looking down while reading or descending stairs. The trochlear nerve travels through the superior orbital fissure to reach the eye. Damage to this nerve can result in vertical diplopia (double vision) and difficulty looking downward, causing patients to tilt their head to compensate.
The working brain [AP-172]
These specimens show a brain with half of the cerebellum removed. This structure, located at the back and lower region of the brain, plays a key role in coordinating movement, balance and posture. It also contributes to learning and memory. Whilst it appears small compared to the rest of the brain, being ~10% of the brain’s mass, it is one of the densest structures present containing ~80% of the brain’s neurons.
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Haemorrhagic Stroke
Haemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts resulting in bleeding. Pressure from this bleeding can build up and damage brain cells. These bleeds are often the result of aneurysms or high blood pressure.
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
The maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2) is the second division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). It is a purely sensory nerve that provides sensation to the middle region of the face. Key features include: 1. Sensory Functions: It supplies sensation to the skin of the cheeks, upper lip, and side of the nose, as well as to the maxillary (upper) teeth, gums, palate, and parts of the nasal cavity and sinuses. The maxillary branch exits the skull through the foramen rotundum and travels through the pterygopalatine fossa before branching further to serve its various areas. This nerve is critical for conveying sensory information from the midface to the brain.
The working brain [AP-185]
The specimen on the left reveals internal structures such as the corpus callosum (which connects the left and right sides of the brain) and the lateral ventricles (which house cerebrospinal fluid) The specimen above on the right shows a sagittal view. The folds and grooves (known as sulci and gyri respectively) can be seen. These increase the surface area of the brain, allowing more neurons to be packed in and dividing the brain into functional areas.
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Human brain - Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a small part of the brain located at the base of the skull. It helps with movement, balance, and some cognitive functions. Learn about its anatomy, role, and possible damage. The cerebellum is divided up into three different parts called lobes. These lobes are separated from each other by deep grooves called fissures. There are two major components of the cerebellum:
Cerebellar cortex: This is a layer of thin, heavily folded tissue that contains most of the nerve cells in the cerebellum.
Cerebellar nuclei: Found deep within the cerebellum, the nerve cells of the cerebellar nuclei are primarily involved in sending information from the cerebellum.
The cerebellum only accounts for about 10 percent of your brain’s total size.
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Cerebellar Agenesis
The specimen on the left presents a rare condition in which the brain has not developed a cerebellum, known as cerebellar agenesis. The cerebellum is primarily involved in motor coordination as well as learning and memory. As a result the patient would have likely had difficulty learning to stand and walk as well as higher cognitive deficits such as difficulty with speaking and fine motor control. Whilst cerebellar agenesis doesn't necessarily directly reduce life expectancy, due to the impacts on quality of life it can have patients may not live as long as their counterparts.
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Ischemic Stroke
Ischaemic stroke is the most common type and occurs when an artery in the brain becomes blocked. This can be due to a thrombus (blood clot) or fatty plaques building up (atherosclerosis).
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Art and anatomy
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a renowned artist, inventor, and a pioneer in the field of anatomy. His fascination with the human body led him to conduct meticulous dissections of cadavers and create incredibly detailed anatomical drawings and studies. His anatomical sketches, such as “The Vitruvian Man,” exemplify his precise understanding of human proportions and musculature. Da Vinci documented his anatomical findings in notebooks, known as the “Codex Leicester” and the “Anatomy Notebooks,” which contained detailed drawings of bones, muscles, and organs. His studies accuracy and artistic representation were groundbreaking, capturing the complexity of human anatomy in unprecedented detail. Particularly advanced for his time were his investigations into the structure and function of the heart, circulatory system, and brain, laying the foundation for future anatomical research. His interdisciplinary approach, combining art and science, revolutionised the study of anatomy by emphasizing the importance of direct observation in empirical research. Although many of his anatomical studies were not widely published in his lifetime, da Vinci’s work influenced later anatomy and medical professionals. His legacy continues to inspire innovation in understanding and depicting human anatomy.
Parietal
The parietal lobe is in the upper middle section of the brain, behind the frontal lobe and above the occipital lobe. Key functions include: 1. Somatosensory Processing: The parietal lobe receives and processes sensory input such as touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness. 2. Spatial Orientation: It helps the brain understand the position and movement of the body in space, crucial for coordination and navigation. 3. Perception and Integration: It integrates sensory data from various parts of the body to form a complete perception, aiding in tasks like object recognition and distinguishing textures. Damage to the parietal lobe can result in difficulties with spatial awareness, inability to perceive parts of the body, and challenges in performing tasks that require coordination or multi-step actions.
Cambridge Map
Public domain image
By David Loggan - Loggan, Cantabrigia Illustrata, 1690 This composite made by combining:
- File:Map of Cambridge by Loggan 1690 - nypldigital ps prn cd27 389.jpeg
- File:Map of Cambridge by Loggan 1690 - L - genmaps.jpg
- File:Map of Cambridge by Loggan 1690 - R - genmaps.jpg.,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18919406
Cerebellar Agenesis
The specimen on the left presents a rare condition in which the brain has not developed a cerebellum, known as cerebellar agenesis. The cerebellum is primarily involved in motor coordination as well as learning and memory. As a result the patient would have likely had difficulty learning to stand and walk as well as higher cognitive deficits such as difficulty with speaking and fine motor control. Whilst cerebellar agenesis doesn't necessarily directly reduce life expectancy, due to the impacts on quality of life it can have patients may not live as long as their counterparts.
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Occipital
The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information. Key functions include: 1. Visual Processing: It contains the primary visual cortex, which interprets visual input from the eyes, such as colour, light, and movement. 2. Visual Recognition: Helps in recognizing objects, shapes, and faces, and understanding spatial relationships in the visual field. 3. Coordination with Other Lobes: Works with other parts of the brain to integrate visual data with sensory and motor information for actions like tracking moving objects. Damage to the occipital lobe can result in vision-related problems, such as blindness, difficulties recognising objects, or visual hallucinations.
New technologies
Technological innovation and scientific discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries drove significant advancements in the field of anatomy. Microscopy and staining techniques enabled detailed examination of cellular structures, advancing understandings of histology and cellular anatomy. Particular advancements in the 19th century included:
- The discovery of cell theory and the development of comparative anatomy, exploring similarities and differences across species
- The rise of academic institutions dedicated to anatomical education and research, such as the University of Edinburgh and Harvard Medical School
- Wilhelm Roentgen’s 1895 discovery of X-rays, which revolutionized medical imaging through non-invasive visualization of internal structures.
Notable advancements in the 20th century included:
- Electron microscopy, which provided unprecedented resolution of cellular and subcellular structures, further advancing anatomical research.
Hand mit Ringen (Hand with Rings): a print of one of the first X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) of the left hand of his wife Anna Bertha Ludwig. It was presented to Professor Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut, University of Freiburg, on 1 January 1896.
Abducens nerve (CN VI)
The abducens nerve (cranial nerve VI) is a motor nerve that controls the movement of a single eye muscle: the lateral rectus muscle. Its primary function is to allow the eye to move outward (abduction), away from the nose. Key points include:
1. Motor Function: The abducens nerve enables lateral movement of the eye by innervating the lateral rectus muscle.
2. Pathway: It originates in the pons (part of the brainstem), travels through the superior orbital fissure, and reaches the orbit of the eye.
Damage to the abducens nerve can result in lateral gaze palsy, where the affected eye cannot move outward properly, leading to double vision (diplopia) and inward deviation of the eye (strabismus).
The working brain [AP-190]
These preserved brain specimens show two different horizontal sections of the brain. On the left the white and grey matter of the cerebral cortex can be appreciated. This is the outermost layer of the brain and contains a dense concentration of neurons which facilitate much of the brains higher functions. On the right the bottom of the brain can be seen, with the olfactory tracts and optic chiasm visible, passages where nerves carrying smell and vision travel into the brain.
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Ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1)
The ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1) is the first division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) and is a purely sensory nerve. It provides sensation to the upper part of the face and structures around the eye. Key functions include: 1. Sensory Innervation: Supplies sensation to the: forehead and scalp; upper eyelid; cornea and conjunctiva of the eye; bridge of the nose and parts of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses 2. Pathway: The ophthalmic branch travels through the superior orbital fissure to enter the orbit and divides into three main branches: - Frontal nerve: Supplies the forehead and scalp. - Lacrimal nerve: Provides sensation to the lacrimal gland and upper eyelid. - Nasociliary nerve: Innervates the cornea, nasal cavity, and ethmoidal air cells. The ophthalmic branch is essential for sensory feedback from the eye region and the forehead, including the detection of pain, temperature, and touch. It also plays a role in the corneal reflex, protecting the eye from injury.
Haemorrhagic Stroke
The image on the left shows a haemorrhagic stroke that occurred with large amounts of blood building up inside the brain, compressing it against the skull. This stroke would have been fatal.
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Ischaemic Stroke
Ischaemic stroke is the most common type and occurs when an artery in the brain becomes blocked. This can be due to a thrombus (blood clot) or fatty plaques building up (atherosclerosis).
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Haemorrhagic Stroke
Haemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts resulting in bleeding. Pressure from this bleeding can build up and damage brain cells. These bleeds are often the result of aneurysms or high blood pressure.
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)
The mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3) is the third and largest division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). It is a mixed nerve, carrying both sensory and motor fibers, and plays a critical role in the head and face. Key features include: 1. Sensory Functions: It provides sensation to the lower face, including the lower lip, chin, jaw, lower teeth, gums, and part of the tongue (general sensation, not taste). 2. Motor Functions: It controls the muscles of mastication (chewing) such as the masseter, temporalis, and pterygoid muscles, as well as some smaller muscles like the tensor tympani and tensor veli palatini. The mandibular branch exits the skull through the foramen ovale and then divides into smaller branches to serve its various functions. It is essential for activities like chewing and feeling sensations in the lower face.
Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) is a mixed nerve with both sensory and motor components. It is primarily responsible for controlling facial expressions and also plays roles in taste, salivation, and tear production. Key functions include: 1. Motor Functions: Controls the muscles of facial expression and some small muscles like the stapedius (in the middle ear) and the posterior belly of the digastric. 2. Sensory Functions: Provides taste sensation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue via the chorda tympani branch. 3. Parasympathetic Functions: Stimulates the lacrimal glands (tear production) and salivary glands (submandibular and sublingual glands). It is essential for facial movement, taste, and certain autonomic functions like tear and saliva production.
The Body Snatchers
The Burke and Hare case in Edinburgh, 1828 profoundly impacted the field of anatomy and medical ethics. Their murders of individuals for the purpose of selling their bodies to anatomists, exposed the ethical dilemmas surrounding the procurement of cadavers for dissection and medical education. In response to widespread public outrage, the Anatomy Act of 1832 was passed, providing a legal framework for obtaining unclaimed bodies and reducing the demand for illicitly obtained cadavers.This legislation aimed to ensure the rights of the dead were respected in medical education. It prompted medical schools and anatomists to adopt stricter ethical standards and protocols for handling and using cadavers, emphasizing transparency and accountability. Further debates were sparked on the treatment of human remains and anatomical research, reshaping perceptions of ethics and practice. The Burke and Hare case continues to influence such debates today.
The Murderers of the Close, London: Cowie and Strange, 1829
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Transcript
The Virtual Anatomy Museum
Explore the past, present, and future of anatomy at the University of Cambridge
Start
Contributors
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
Welcome to the Virtual Anatomy Museum!
'An “exploded” skull gazes from the dark. Next to it, an early 20th century woman’s deformed foot in a jar and a syphilitic cranium hold stories of the past and doorways to the future.'
The teaching of anatomy, dissection and the study of bodies have played a central role as part of the medical training in Cambridge since mid-16th century. They are also the remnants of what used to be one of the largest anatomical collections during the 19th century Europe. A collection such as that of the Museum in the Cambridge Anatomy School is still extremely important today, relevant not only for continuing medical training, but also for the insights it can provide in the history of medicine and of medical institutions, and for understanding the perspectives on the human body that have been central to their development. It is the aim of this virtual museum to bring this closer to the contemporary audiences.
Beauchene skull Bone with brass connections and wires. Mid to late 19th century. Maison Tramond.
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
Menu
Anatomy throughout history
Anatomy today
The future of anatomy
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
Anatomy throughout history
Continue
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
History of Anatomy
The teaching of anatomy, dissection, and the study of bodies have played a central role as part of the medical training in Cambridge since the mid-16th century. Inside this section, you will immerse yourself in the evolution of anatomical study in Ancient Greece, Persia, and Rome through its development in Europe to the present day. You will also explore the advent and progression of anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge.
Read about the first human anatomy museum at Cambridge
Go to article
Go to timeline
Learn about events that shaped the way we view anatomy
Explore the history of anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge
Go to map
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
The museum of human anatomy at Cambridge
'The chief attraction of the museum is the magnificent collection which it contains of human crania...[which is] the second largest in Great Britain" (p.1532)
There has been an anatomy museum at Cambridge for centuries, beginning in 1836 when an existing collection was united a 21-year old museum formed by Professor MacCartney of Trinity College, Dublin and purchased by Professor Clark of Cambridge. One of the earliest accounts of this museum appears in The Lancet, an independent, international general medical journal founded in 1823 by Thomas Wakley. The article appears in Volume 142, Issue 3668, on 16 December 1893. It describes the history, location, layout, and some of the content of the museum, particularly the "Crania Britannica" collection, which was used to "study the physical characters of the successesive races who peopled this portion of Great Britain in the neolithic, the bronze, the Roman, and the Saxon periods" (p.1532). It de
Adult skull on to which have been added in blue paint the superficial blood vessels
Go to article
How the past shapes the present
Section menu
701CE
460BCE
During the Islamic Golden Age, Muslim scholars made significant contributions to the field of anatomy, advancing the knowledge of Ancient Greek physicians
Anatomy first started in ancient Egypt and Greece with burial rituals and dissections
162BCE
More detailed study of anatomy came with the Romans and seminal individuals such as Galen further dissecting animals
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
How the past shapes the present
Section menu
1900s
1400s
By the 15th century, anatomical knowledge began to advance significantly due to the interest of artists and scholars in representing the body
The 19th and 20th centuries were transformative periods for the study of anatomy, marked by groundbreaking work in research methodology, as well as medical education
1800s
In 19th century Scotland, the Burke and Hare case sent shockwaves through the field of anatomy and impacted heavily on medical education
All Material Copyright © 2024 - The University of Cambridge
History of anatomy at Cambridge map
Click on the blue numbers to hear from Professor David Riches about the evolution of anatomy teaching at the University of Cambridge
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Anatomy today
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The skull
The human skull is a complex structure made up of 22 bones that form the framework of the head. It provides protection for the brain, houses sensory organs, and supports the muscles used for chewing, speaking, and facial expressions. Start by clicking on the circles located in the various sections of the skull displayed on the right-hand side to explore and learn more about the different sections of the brain!
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The skull and cranial nerves
The cranial nerves, a set of 12 paired nerves, originate from the brain and brainstem, controlling various sensory and motor functions in the head and neck. Click on the blue dots located in the various sections of the skull and cranial nerves in the anterior view displayed on the right-hand side. Each circle highlights a specific nerve. Explore to learn how these parts work together to support essential life functions!
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The working brain
Click on the different images to learn more.
Explore various brain specimens from the Anatomy Museum at the University of Cambridge, showcasing different sections and structures of the brain.
On the left the white and grey matter of the cerebral cortex... Click the blue dot to learn more!
The specimen on the left reveals internal structures such as... Click the blue dot to learn more!
The specimen on the left shows the Circle of Willis...Click the blue dot to learn more!
These specimens show a brain with half of the cerebellum removed.Click the blue dot to learn more!
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Brain Pathologies
Ischaemic stroke
Haemorrhagic stroke
I. Stroke
The brain is supplied by a complex network ofarteries and smaller vessels that provide it with a constant flow of oxygenated blood. When thissupply is disrupted, parts of the brain no longerreceiving blood can die, leading to a stroke. Click on the images on the right hand side to learn more about the two types of stroke.
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Brain Pathologies
I. Cerebellar Agenesis
In the specimens on the right we see a rare condition in which the brain has not developed a cerebellum, known as cerebellar agenesis. Click on the images on the right hand side to learn more.
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Test yourself
In this section, you will have the opportunity to try our interactive test and check your understanding of the working brain and brain pathologies. Have a go here to see how many you can get right!
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The future of anatomy
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Temporal
The temporal lobe is located on the sides of the brain. Key functions include: 1. Auditory Processing: The temporal lobe contains the auditory cortex, which processes sounds and enables the recognition of speech and music. 2. Memory Formation: It houses the hippocampus, essential for forming and retrieving long-term memories. 3. Language Understanding: The left temporal lobe typically contains Wernicke's area, which is responsible for language comprehension. 4. Emotional Processing: The temporal lobe also contributes to interpreting emotions and social cues through its connection with the limbic system. Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to issues like impaired memory, difficulty understanding language, or changes in emotional responses.
The Dawning of Anatomy in Cambridge. Cambridge University was founded in 1209 and it included a Faculty of Physic, which in modern terms means medicine. The early anatomical teaching would have taken place by reading classical texts based largely on those of Galen. It was not until 1549 that the study of anatomy became a statutory requirement for medicine.
List of contributors (2015-2024)
Dr Jenny Barna, IT Business Manager,School of Biological Sciences (SBS)Mr Ian Bolton, Anatomy Visual Media Group, Department of Physiology, Development, and Neurology (PDN) Dr Cecilia Brassett, Clinical Anatomist, PDN, Dr Isla Fay, Human Anatomy Technical Coordinatory, PDN Mr Roberto Inchingolog, Communications Coordinator, PDN Dr Alexandra Ion, Research Associate McDonald Institute for Archeological Research ETC ETC
https://www.pdn.cam.ac.uk/
Ischemic Stroke
The image on the left presents a coronal section showing an ischaemic stroke where a blocked artery has resulted in the death of a part of the brain. This stroke would have been fatal.
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The Persian polymath
Ibn Sina, known as Avicenna (980-1037AD), was a Persian polymath renowned for his contributions to anatomy and medicine. His work "The Canon of Medicine" integrated and expanded anatomical knowledge of his time, detailing the skeletal, muscular, and nervous systems with a focus on empirical obseration. Despite restrictions on human dissection, he advocated for anatomical study through animal dissection, advancing understanding of organs and their functions.
Optic nerve (CN II)
The optic nerve (cranial nerve II) is a purely sensory nerve responsible for transmitting visual information from the retina to the brain. It plays a crucial role in the sense of sight. Key features include: 1. Visual Signal Transmission: The optic nerve carries electrical impulses generated by the photoreceptors in the retina (rods and cones) to the visual cortex in the occipital lobe of the brain for processing. 2. Pathway: The nerve exits the eye through the optic disc, travels through the optic canal, and partially crosses at the optic chiasm, where signals from the visual fields are reorganized before reaching the brain. Damage to the optic nerve can result in vision loss or visual field defects, such as blindness or tunnel vision, depending on the location and severity of the injury. It is vital for visual perception and spatial awareness.
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Frontal
The frontal lobe is the largest part of the brain's cerebral cortex, located at the front of the skull. It plays a crucial role in higher cognitive functions such as reasoning, decision-making, problem-solving, planning, and controlling voluntary movements. It is also responsible for personality, behaviour regulation, and emotional expression. Key areas within the frontal lobe include: 1. Prefrontal Cortex: Involved in complex thought, planning, decision-making, and moderating social behaviour. 2. Motor Cortex: Responsible for controlling voluntary muscle movements. 3. Broca’s Area: Found in the left frontal lobe, it is critical for speech production. Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in personality, difficulty in problem-solving, and impaired motor skills.
Galenic theory
Galen, a prominent Greek physician, who lived from 129-216CE, made substantial contributions to the field of anatomy. Working in Rome, he conducted extensive animal dissections, as human dissection was largely forbidden, which allowed him to make significant discoveries about the human body. Galen's detailed observations and meticulous documentation of muscles, nerves, and organs, formed the cornerstone of anatomical knowledge for over a millennium. He introduced the concept of the circulatory system, describing the heart's role in pumping blood, although he inaccurately believed blood flowed in a two-way system. Galen's work on the nervous system, where he differentiated between senory and motor nerves, was groundbreaking. His theories on physiology and disease were compiled in numerous texts that dominated medical education and practice throughout the Middle Ages.
Galen's Physiological schema. Photo number: L0024393 http://catalogue.wellcomelibrary.org/record=b1271877
The working brain
The specimen on the left shows the Circle of Willis a ring-like structure made up of interconnected arteries which is present in the base of the brain. This can also be seen in the specimen on the right. The Circle of Willis is important in supplying the anterior portion of the brain with a consistent supply of oxygenated blood and is itself supplied by key arteries such as the internal carotid artery. The ring-like structure means that if sections are blocked or narrowed blood can still continue to flow and supply the brain.
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Oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III)
The oculomotor nerve (cranial nerve III) is a motor nerve that plays a critical role in controlling eye movement and regulating pupil size. Key functions include: 1. Controls most of the eye's movement by innervating the: - Superior rectus: Moves the eye upward. - Inferior rectus: Moves the eye downward. - Medial rectus: Moves the eye inward. - Inferior oblique: Helps rotate the eye upward and outward. - Levator palpebrae superioris: Lifts the upper eyelid. 2. Parasympathetic Functions: Regulates the size of the pupil (pupil constriction) and lens shape for focusing (accommodation) by innervating the sphincter pupillae and ciliary muscles. The oculomotor nerve is essential for coordinated eye movements, focusing vision, and controlling light entry into the eye. Damage to this nerve can result in drooping eyelids (ptosis), double vision, and difficulty moving the eye.
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The Father of Medicine
Hippocrates, who lived around 460-370BCE, is often called the "Father of Medicine." This ancient Greek physician transformed how people thought about health and the human body. Instead of blaming disease on the gods, Hippocreates urged doctors to carefully observe their patients and note their symptoms. His detailed writings, known as the Hippocratic Corpus, offered some of the first systematic descriptions of human anatomy and illness.Though human dissection was forbidden in his time, Hippocrates promoted the study of animal anatomy to gain insights into human physiology. He described various anatomical features, such as bones, muscles, and organs, emphasizing their functions and interconnections. Hippocrates also introduced the concept of the four humours (blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile) which, despite being incorrect, shaped medical thinking for centuries.
Book illustration in “Quinta Essentia” by Leonhart Thurneisser zum Thurn (gen. Leonhard Thurneysser). 1574 Source: http://www.arsgravis.com/UserFiles/image/Andrigino_NOU/androgino7.jpg
Trochlear nerve (CN IV)
The trochlear nerve (cranial nerve IV) is a motor nerve responsible for controlling one specific muscle of the eye: the superior oblique muscle. It is the smallest cranial nerve and the only one that exits the brainstem dorsally (from the back of the brainstem). Key functions include: Eye Movement: The trochlear nerve enables the superior oblique muscle to: - Rotate the eye downward and inward (intorsion). - Assist in controlling smooth, coordinated eye movements. This function is essential for actions like looking down while reading or descending stairs. The trochlear nerve travels through the superior orbital fissure to reach the eye. Damage to this nerve can result in vertical diplopia (double vision) and difficulty looking downward, causing patients to tilt their head to compensate.
The working brain [AP-172]
These specimens show a brain with half of the cerebellum removed. This structure, located at the back and lower region of the brain, plays a key role in coordinating movement, balance and posture. It also contributes to learning and memory. Whilst it appears small compared to the rest of the brain, being ~10% of the brain’s mass, it is one of the densest structures present containing ~80% of the brain’s neurons.
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Haemorrhagic Stroke
Haemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts resulting in bleeding. Pressure from this bleeding can build up and damage brain cells. These bleeds are often the result of aneurysms or high blood pressure.
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2)
The maxillary branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V2) is the second division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). It is a purely sensory nerve that provides sensation to the middle region of the face. Key features include: 1. Sensory Functions: It supplies sensation to the skin of the cheeks, upper lip, and side of the nose, as well as to the maxillary (upper) teeth, gums, palate, and parts of the nasal cavity and sinuses. The maxillary branch exits the skull through the foramen rotundum and travels through the pterygopalatine fossa before branching further to serve its various areas. This nerve is critical for conveying sensory information from the midface to the brain.
The working brain [AP-185]
The specimen on the left reveals internal structures such as the corpus callosum (which connects the left and right sides of the brain) and the lateral ventricles (which house cerebrospinal fluid) The specimen above on the right shows a sagittal view. The folds and grooves (known as sulci and gyri respectively) can be seen. These increase the surface area of the brain, allowing more neurons to be packed in and dividing the brain into functional areas.
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Human brain - Cerebellum
The cerebellum is a small part of the brain located at the base of the skull. It helps with movement, balance, and some cognitive functions. Learn about its anatomy, role, and possible damage. The cerebellum is divided up into three different parts called lobes. These lobes are separated from each other by deep grooves called fissures. There are two major components of the cerebellum: Cerebellar cortex: This is a layer of thin, heavily folded tissue that contains most of the nerve cells in the cerebellum. Cerebellar nuclei: Found deep within the cerebellum, the nerve cells of the cerebellar nuclei are primarily involved in sending information from the cerebellum. The cerebellum only accounts for about 10 percent of your brain’s total size.
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Cerebellar Agenesis
The specimen on the left presents a rare condition in which the brain has not developed a cerebellum, known as cerebellar agenesis. The cerebellum is primarily involved in motor coordination as well as learning and memory. As a result the patient would have likely had difficulty learning to stand and walk as well as higher cognitive deficits such as difficulty with speaking and fine motor control. Whilst cerebellar agenesis doesn't necessarily directly reduce life expectancy, due to the impacts on quality of life it can have patients may not live as long as their counterparts.
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Ischemic Stroke
Ischaemic stroke is the most common type and occurs when an artery in the brain becomes blocked. This can be due to a thrombus (blood clot) or fatty plaques building up (atherosclerosis).
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Art and anatomy
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) was a renowned artist, inventor, and a pioneer in the field of anatomy. His fascination with the human body led him to conduct meticulous dissections of cadavers and create incredibly detailed anatomical drawings and studies. His anatomical sketches, such as “The Vitruvian Man,” exemplify his precise understanding of human proportions and musculature. Da Vinci documented his anatomical findings in notebooks, known as the “Codex Leicester” and the “Anatomy Notebooks,” which contained detailed drawings of bones, muscles, and organs. His studies accuracy and artistic representation were groundbreaking, capturing the complexity of human anatomy in unprecedented detail. Particularly advanced for his time were his investigations into the structure and function of the heart, circulatory system, and brain, laying the foundation for future anatomical research. His interdisciplinary approach, combining art and science, revolutionised the study of anatomy by emphasizing the importance of direct observation in empirical research. Although many of his anatomical studies were not widely published in his lifetime, da Vinci’s work influenced later anatomy and medical professionals. His legacy continues to inspire innovation in understanding and depicting human anatomy.
Parietal
The parietal lobe is in the upper middle section of the brain, behind the frontal lobe and above the occipital lobe. Key functions include: 1. Somatosensory Processing: The parietal lobe receives and processes sensory input such as touch, temperature, pain, and spatial awareness. 2. Spatial Orientation: It helps the brain understand the position and movement of the body in space, crucial for coordination and navigation. 3. Perception and Integration: It integrates sensory data from various parts of the body to form a complete perception, aiding in tasks like object recognition and distinguishing textures. Damage to the parietal lobe can result in difficulties with spatial awareness, inability to perceive parts of the body, and challenges in performing tasks that require coordination or multi-step actions.
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By David Loggan - Loggan, Cantabrigia Illustrata, 1690 This composite made by combining:
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=18919406
Cerebellar Agenesis
The specimen on the left presents a rare condition in which the brain has not developed a cerebellum, known as cerebellar agenesis. The cerebellum is primarily involved in motor coordination as well as learning and memory. As a result the patient would have likely had difficulty learning to stand and walk as well as higher cognitive deficits such as difficulty with speaking and fine motor control. Whilst cerebellar agenesis doesn't necessarily directly reduce life expectancy, due to the impacts on quality of life it can have patients may not live as long as their counterparts.
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Occipital
The occipital lobe is located at the back of the brain and is primarily responsible for processing visual information. Key functions include: 1. Visual Processing: It contains the primary visual cortex, which interprets visual input from the eyes, such as colour, light, and movement. 2. Visual Recognition: Helps in recognizing objects, shapes, and faces, and understanding spatial relationships in the visual field. 3. Coordination with Other Lobes: Works with other parts of the brain to integrate visual data with sensory and motor information for actions like tracking moving objects. Damage to the occipital lobe can result in vision-related problems, such as blindness, difficulties recognising objects, or visual hallucinations.
New technologies
Technological innovation and scientific discoveries in the 19th and 20th centuries drove significant advancements in the field of anatomy. Microscopy and staining techniques enabled detailed examination of cellular structures, advancing understandings of histology and cellular anatomy. Particular advancements in the 19th century included:
- The discovery of cell theory and the development of comparative anatomy, exploring similarities and differences across species
- The rise of academic institutions dedicated to anatomical education and research, such as the University of Edinburgh and Harvard Medical School
- Wilhelm Roentgen’s 1895 discovery of X-rays, which revolutionized medical imaging through non-invasive visualization of internal structures.
Notable advancements in the 20th century included:Hand mit Ringen (Hand with Rings): a print of one of the first X-rays by Wilhelm Röntgen (1845–1923) of the left hand of his wife Anna Bertha Ludwig. It was presented to Professor Ludwig Zehnder of the Physik Institut, University of Freiburg, on 1 January 1896.
Abducens nerve (CN VI)
The abducens nerve (cranial nerve VI) is a motor nerve that controls the movement of a single eye muscle: the lateral rectus muscle. Its primary function is to allow the eye to move outward (abduction), away from the nose. Key points include: 1. Motor Function: The abducens nerve enables lateral movement of the eye by innervating the lateral rectus muscle. 2. Pathway: It originates in the pons (part of the brainstem), travels through the superior orbital fissure, and reaches the orbit of the eye. Damage to the abducens nerve can result in lateral gaze palsy, where the affected eye cannot move outward properly, leading to double vision (diplopia) and inward deviation of the eye (strabismus).
The working brain [AP-190]
These preserved brain specimens show two different horizontal sections of the brain. On the left the white and grey matter of the cerebral cortex can be appreciated. This is the outermost layer of the brain and contains a dense concentration of neurons which facilitate much of the brains higher functions. On the right the bottom of the brain can be seen, with the olfactory tracts and optic chiasm visible, passages where nerves carrying smell and vision travel into the brain.
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Ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1)
The ophthalmic branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V1) is the first division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V) and is a purely sensory nerve. It provides sensation to the upper part of the face and structures around the eye. Key functions include: 1. Sensory Innervation: Supplies sensation to the: forehead and scalp; upper eyelid; cornea and conjunctiva of the eye; bridge of the nose and parts of the nasal cavity and paranasal sinuses 2. Pathway: The ophthalmic branch travels through the superior orbital fissure to enter the orbit and divides into three main branches: - Frontal nerve: Supplies the forehead and scalp. - Lacrimal nerve: Provides sensation to the lacrimal gland and upper eyelid. - Nasociliary nerve: Innervates the cornea, nasal cavity, and ethmoidal air cells. The ophthalmic branch is essential for sensory feedback from the eye region and the forehead, including the detection of pain, temperature, and touch. It also plays a role in the corneal reflex, protecting the eye from injury.
Haemorrhagic Stroke
The image on the left shows a haemorrhagic stroke that occurred with large amounts of blood building up inside the brain, compressing it against the skull. This stroke would have been fatal.
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Ischaemic Stroke
Ischaemic stroke is the most common type and occurs when an artery in the brain becomes blocked. This can be due to a thrombus (blood clot) or fatty plaques building up (atherosclerosis).
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Haemorrhagic Stroke
Haemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts resulting in bleeding. Pressure from this bleeding can build up and damage brain cells. These bleeds are often the result of aneurysms or high blood pressure.
Image: CC BY 2.0 Freepik
Mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3)
The mandibular branch of the trigeminal nerve (CN V3) is the third and largest division of the trigeminal nerve (cranial nerve V). It is a mixed nerve, carrying both sensory and motor fibers, and plays a critical role in the head and face. Key features include: 1. Sensory Functions: It provides sensation to the lower face, including the lower lip, chin, jaw, lower teeth, gums, and part of the tongue (general sensation, not taste). 2. Motor Functions: It controls the muscles of mastication (chewing) such as the masseter, temporalis, and pterygoid muscles, as well as some smaller muscles like the tensor tympani and tensor veli palatini. The mandibular branch exits the skull through the foramen ovale and then divides into smaller branches to serve its various functions. It is essential for activities like chewing and feeling sensations in the lower face.
Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
The facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) is a mixed nerve with both sensory and motor components. It is primarily responsible for controlling facial expressions and also plays roles in taste, salivation, and tear production. Key functions include: 1. Motor Functions: Controls the muscles of facial expression and some small muscles like the stapedius (in the middle ear) and the posterior belly of the digastric. 2. Sensory Functions: Provides taste sensation to the anterior two-thirds of the tongue via the chorda tympani branch. 3. Parasympathetic Functions: Stimulates the lacrimal glands (tear production) and salivary glands (submandibular and sublingual glands). It is essential for facial movement, taste, and certain autonomic functions like tear and saliva production.
The Body Snatchers
The Burke and Hare case in Edinburgh, 1828 profoundly impacted the field of anatomy and medical ethics. Their murders of individuals for the purpose of selling their bodies to anatomists, exposed the ethical dilemmas surrounding the procurement of cadavers for dissection and medical education. In response to widespread public outrage, the Anatomy Act of 1832 was passed, providing a legal framework for obtaining unclaimed bodies and reducing the demand for illicitly obtained cadavers.This legislation aimed to ensure the rights of the dead were respected in medical education. It prompted medical schools and anatomists to adopt stricter ethical standards and protocols for handling and using cadavers, emphasizing transparency and accountability. Further debates were sparked on the treatment of human remains and anatomical research, reshaping perceptions of ethics and practice. The Burke and Hare case continues to influence such debates today.
The Murderers of the Close, London: Cowie and Strange, 1829