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12/05/2024

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Tutoring session

INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

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THE PATH TO WWI

Here we will delve into the large range of event that laid the groundwork for the WWI.

WHICH EVENTS LED TO THE WWI ?

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1913

1912-13

1908

1877-1878

1878

1878

1900

1914

1875

1853-1856

1821-1832

1774

1750

THE EASTERN QUESTION

Through the 19th Century, the Ottoman empire declined. It could not deal with the colonial ambitions of Western European powers, neither with the militarism of central Empires and nor with the nationalist resent in the Balkans.

THE FALL OF THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

The Concert of Europe was an informal system promoting peace across Europe, through the balance of power.

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OTHER EVENTS

WHAT ENDED THE CONCERT OF EUROPE ?

Austro-Prussian war asserted the dominance of Prussia

Italian reunification disrupted the peace in Central Europe

1866

1859-61

The Franco-Prussian war and the German unification

The Congress of Paris re-balanced the powers in Europe

1870-71

1856

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The alliance system

A SHIFT IN THE BALANCE OF POWER

A vast ecosystem of Alliances has developped in Europe

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JAPAN

In 1868, The Meiji Restoration sarted and ended Japan’s feudal system and launched rapid modernization, industrialization, and military reforms, transforming Japan into a central power resistant to Western imperialism.

NEW POWER IN EAST ASIA

USA

After 1870, the country became the the leading global economy due to industrial growth, innovation, and abundant resources, dominating sectors like steel, oil, and manufacturing.

THE ECONOMIC GIANT

It is important to also mention the German Weltpolitk, as a factor.

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WaRS & Crisis

Many crisis and conflicts occured in the early 20th century, paving the way for a potential global war.

THAT HAVE TRIGGERED WWI

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August 4

August 3

July 29-30

August 1

August 1

1914

WWI

1914

July 28

July 23

June 28

WWI

THE ALLIANCE SYSTEM

The alliance system, entered very quickly in action, triggerd by a certain event on the timeline below. It depicts perfectly, that the early 20th century period fostered the perfect climate for such a War.

ITS ENTRANCE IN ACTION

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THE PATH TO COLD WAR

Here we will delve into the large range of event that laid the groundwork for the Cold War.

WHICH EVENTS LED TO THE COLD WAR ?

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1944

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) aims to ensure exchange rate stability and provide financial assistance to countries facing balance of payments difficulties, while the World Bank focuses on loans for post-war reconstruction and economic development.

BRETTON WOODS INSTITUTIONS

1947

GATT aimed to reduce barriers to international trade through multilateral negotiations, emphasizing principles of non-discrimination, reciprocity, transparency, and binding commitments.

GATT

1945

The United Nations serves as a global platform for collective security, international law, economic development, human rights, and disarmament, with each member state having one vote in the General Assembly.

UNO

Two ideologies emerged as dominant after the WWII

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BALANCE OF POWER

The WWII has completely shift the balance of power in the World

IN THE POST WWII WORLD

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HEARTLAND

Mackinder's Heartland Theory posited that control of Eastern Europe was key to dominating Eurasia and Africa, encapsulated in the idea that "who rules East Europe commands the Heartland."

MACKINDER'S

RIMLAND

Spykman's Rimland Theory argued that controlling the coastal areas surrounding Eurasia was crucial for world domination, influencing U.S. containment policy during the Cold War.

SKYPMAN'S

SEA POWER

Mahan's Sea Power Theory emphasized naval supremacy as essential for achieving global dominance and protecting trade routes.

ALFRED MAHAN'S

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1949

Jun 1948-Apr 1949

Feb 1948

Jun 1947

1947

1948

1948

BIPOLAR WOLRD

1947

Mar 1947

Mar 1946

Feb 1946

WWII

COLD WAR IN EUROPE

Right after WWII, many events occured dividing further the European continent in two.

EVENTS THAT TRIGGERED THE CONFLICT

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COLD WAR IN ASIA

China asserted its independance and communist governance in 1949. They come out of WWII as an independant country willing to free itself from the long-standing foreign occupation.

CHINA THE NEW ASIAN GIANT

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KOREAN WAR

The Korean War (1950-1953) was a conflict between North and South Korea, with the United States and China intervening on opposing sides, resulting in the division of Korea along the 38th parallel.

1950-1953

INDOCHINA WAR

The Indochina Wars were a series of conflicts in Southeast Asia from 1946 to 1991, primarily involving France and later the United States against communist forces in Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia.

1946-1954

SINO SOVIET ALLIANCE

The Sino-Soviet alliance, formalized in 1950, was a strategic partnership between the Soviet Union and China that significantly altered the balance of power in Asia, though it eventually deteriorated due to ideological differences.

1950

The year 1953 marked a shift in the Cold war. Many significant event occured, leading to a "certain" peace. What are the actual principles of this concept ?

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PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE

WHAT EVENTS DECREASED THE TENSIONS IN THE WORLD ?

Armistice signed, ending the korean war, and creating the demilitarized zone.

The crackdown in East Berlin Exposed the fragility of Soviet control in Eastern Europe.

27 JULY 1953

17 JUNE 1953

"Peace impossible, war unlikely" : Raymond Aron's statement illustrate the Mutual Assured Destruction concept.

Stalin's death created a power vacuum in the USSR.

M.A.D.

5 MARCH 1953

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PEACEFUL COEXISTENCE

Many events, and facts illustrte the ambiguity of this so called peaceful coexistence. From ideologic rivalry to proxy wars, this concept underlie all those tensions.

ONLY IN APPEARANCES

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Here's more about the containment policy core principles

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CONTAINMENT POLICY

The Containment policy was a United States foreign policy strategy during the Cold War aimed at preventing the spread of communism by limiting Soviet influence around the world.

HOW DID THE US TRY TO STOP THE SPRED OF COMMUNISM ?

Alfred Mahan's Sea Power Theory, articulated in his seminal work "The Influence of Sea Power upon History" (1890), emphasized the critical role of naval supremacy in achieving national greatness and global dominance, arguing that a strong navy and control of key maritime chokepoints were essential for protecting trade routes and projecting power. Mahan's analysis highlighted historical examples, particularly the rise of Great Britain as a world power through its naval capabilities, and he advocated for the United States to expand its naval fleet and establish overseas bases to secure its economic interests, which significantly influenced U.S. foreign policy and military strategy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Sea power theory

The Sino-Soviet Alliance, formalized in 1950 with the Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance between the USSR and the newly established People's Republic of China, significantly altered the balance of power in Asia. This alliance provided for mutual defense and economic cooperation, strengthening the communist bloc's position in the region. However, ideological differences and conflicting national interests led to a gradual deterioration of relations, culminating in a split by the late 1950s and border clashes in 1969.

Sino-soviet alliance

Bretton woods

The Bretton Woods Institutions, established in 1944 during a conference in Bretton Woods, New Hampshire, aimed to create a stable international economic framework following World War II. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) was created to ensure exchange rate stability and provide financial assistance to countries facing balance of payments difficulties, while the World Bank (initially known as the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development) focuses on providing loans for post-war reconstruction and economic development, particularly in developing nations.

Together, these institutions play a crucial role in fostering global economic cooperation and stability.

The Concert of Europe

The Concert of Europe was a diplomatic system established after the Napoleonic Wars in 1815, aiming to maintain peace and stability on the continent. It involved the major European powers—initially Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia, with France joining later—working together to preserve the balance of power and territorial boundaries. This informal arrangement, also known as the Congress System, relied on periodic meetings and conferences to address international issues and prevent conflicts. The Concert sought to suppress revolutionary movements, manage nationalist sentiments, and uphold the existing monarchical order across Europe.

The Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between (1951) the U.S. and Japan solidified this relationship, allowing for American military bases on Japanese soil to deter potential communist threats from nearby regions. Furthermore, U.S. involvement in Taiwan was crucial as it provided military support to the Nationalist government after their retreat from mainland China, ensuring that Taiwan remained a non-communist stronghold in East Asia.

Asia

In Asia, the United States implemented its Containment policy through a combination of military intervention and strategic alliances to prevent the spread of communism. The Korean War (1950-1953) was a direct application of this policy, with U.S. forces intervening to support South Korea against the communist North, ultimately leading to a stalemate and the division of Korea along the 38th parallel. In Vietnam, the U.S. escalated its involvement throughout the 1960s, supporting South Vietnam in a protracted conflict against the communist North, which exemplified the policy of containment and the domino theory that suggested that if one country fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow. The U.S. also formed alliances such as SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) in 1954, aimed at collective defense against communist expansion in Southeast Asia. Additionally, in Japan, following World War II, the U.S. established a significant military presence and implemented economic aid programs to ensure Japan remained a capitalist ally.

The year 1949 marked a pivotal moment in post-World War II Europe, with the formal division of Germany into West Germany (Federal Republic of Germany) and East Germany (German Democratic Republic). This division was mirrored in the broader European context through the establishment of key organizations representing the ideological split between East and West. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) was formed as a Western military alliance to counter Soviet influence, while COMECON (Council for Mutual Economic Assistance) was established to facilitate economic cooperation among Eastern Bloc countries under Soviet leadership. Additionally, the Council of Europe was created to promote human rights and democracy in Western Europe, further solidifying the continent's ideological and political divide.

Division of Europe and Germany

The Containment policy was a strategic approach adopted by the United States during the Cold War, aimed at preventing the spread of communism and limiting Soviet influence globally. This policy was based on the belief that if one nation fell to communism, neighboring countries would follow suit, creating a domino effect. To counter this threat, the U.S. committed to providing political, military, and economic assistance to nations at risk of communist takeover, thereby supporting democratic governments and fostering stability. The policy emphasized a combination of military alliances, economic aid, and diplomatic efforts to contain Soviet expansion without resorting to direct military confrontation, thereby maintaining a balance of power in international relations.

Core principles

Middle East

In the Middle East, containment was implemented through the Eisenhower Doctrine of 1957, which promised military and economic aid to countries resisting communist aggression. The U.S. supported pro-Western governments in countries like Iran and Saudi Arabia to maintain stability and prevent Soviet influence in this strategically important region.

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Communism

Communism, primarily represented by the Soviet Union and the People's Republic of China after 1949, sought to establish a classless society through state control of the economy and was coordinated internationally through the Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) established in 1947 to unify Communist parties under Soviet leadership.

Capitalism

Liberalism, championed by the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, emphasized free markets, democracy, and individual rights, while the era of McCarthyism in the U.S. (circa 1950-1954) reflected a period of political repression characterized by the suppression of opposition through false accusations and fear of communism.

M.A.D.

The concept of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD) emerged as a cornerstone of Cold War nuclear strategy, shaping the tense but relatively stable standoff between the United States and the Soviet Union. This doctrine developed as both superpowers acquired nuclear capabilities that could annihilate each other, regardless of who struck first. Three key events illustrate the evolution of this strategy: 1) The Soviet Union's successful nuclear test in 1949, which ended the U.S. nuclear monopoly; 2) The U.S. National Security Council report NSC-68 in 1950, which called for a significant military buildup to counter the Soviet threat; and 3) The Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, which brought the world to the brink of nuclear war and starkly demonstrated the dangers of MAD.

Proxy-conflicts

During the period of peaceful coexistence, the United States and the Soviet Union, constrained by the doctrine of Mutual Assured Destruction (MAD), engaged in proxy conflicts in developing nations to exert global influence without risking direct military confrontation. Notable examples include the Cuban Revolution of 1959 and its aftermath, which brought the Cold War to the Western Hemisphere, culminating in the Bay of Pigs invasion and the Cuban Missile Crisis. The Vietnam War exemplified the U.S. policy of containment and the domino theory in Southeast Asia. Other significant proxy conflicts during this era included the Congo Crisis (1960-1965), where the U.S. and USSR supported opposing factions, and the Angolan War of Independence (1961-1974), which saw involvement from both superpowers as well as China. These indirect confrontations allowed the superpowers to compete for global influence while avoiding the risk of nuclear war, but often resulted in prolonged conflicts and significant humanitarian costs in the affected regions.

Africa

In Africa, U.S. containment efforts during the Cold War were significant but less pronounced than in other regions, as the U.S. sought to counter Soviet influence through military support and covert operations. Notably, the U.S. backed UNITA (National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) during the Angolan Civil War against the Soviet-supported MPLA, providing military training and financial assistance after Congress repealed the Clark Amendment. Additionally, the U.S. supported anti-communist factions in the Congo following the assassination of Prime Minister Patrice Lumumba and initially backed Emperor Haile Selassie in Ethiopia against communist insurgents. The Ogaden War (1977-1978) further illustrated this dynamic, with U.S. support for Somalia against Soviet-backed Ethiopia. Overall, while U.S. containment policy prioritized anti-communism, it was complicated by decolonization movements and internal conflicts, leading to a legacy of instability across the continent.

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Triple Alliance

The Triple Alliance was a military alliance formed in 1882 between Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy, aimed at mutual defense against France and Russia.

Triple Entente

The Triple Entente was an informal alliance formed in the early 20th century between the Russian Empire, the French Third Republic, and the United Kingdom

German Weltpolitik

Another factor !

Weltpolitik ("world policy") was an aggressive foreign policy adopted by Germany under Kaiser Wilhelm II in 1891, marking a shift from Bismarck's cautious Realpolitik. It aimed to transform Germany into a global power through assertive diplomacy, overseas colonial expansion, and naval buildup to rival Britain. This policy led to increased tensions with other European powers, contributing to Germany's isolation and setting the stage for World War I.

Nicholas Spykman's Rimland Theory, developed in 1943 as a modification of Mackinder's ideas, argued that the coastal areas surrounding the Eurasian landmass—the "Rimland"—were more crucial for global dominance than the Heartland itself. Spykman contended that controlling this peripheral region was essential for containing potential adversaries and significantly influenced U.S. containment policy during the Cold War, leading to strategic alliances along the Eurasian periphery through organizations such as NATO, SEATO, and CENTO to counter Soviet expansion.

Rimland theory

Europe

In Europe, containment was implemented through several key initiatives. The Marshall Plan provided economic aid to Western European countries to rebuild their economies and resist communist influence. NATO was established in 1949 as a military alliance to defend Western Europe against potential Soviet aggression. The U.S. also maintained a strong military presence in West Germany and other European countries, with up to 400,000 troops stationed across 100 communities at the height of the Cold War in 1962. When the Soviet Union attempted to expand its influence, such as during the 1948 Berlin Blockade, the U.S. responded with the Berlin Airlift to support West Berlin. Other examples of containment in Europe included the formation of the Council of Europe in 1949 to promote human rights and democracy, and the establishment of Radio Free Europe in 1950 to broadcast anti-communist propaganda.

This joint declaration asserted that neither the U.S. nor the U.K. sought territorial gains and affirmed the right of all peoples to choose their own governments. Subsequent conferences, including Tehran (1943), Yalta (1945), and Potsdam (1945), further defined Allied strategies and territorial arrangements, particularly regarding the division of Germany and the establishment of a new international order, reflecting both cooperation and underlying tensions among the Allies.

The Grand Alliance

The Atlantic Charter, issued on August 14, 1941, by President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Prime Minister Winston Churchill, outlined key principles for a post-World War II world, emphasizing self-determination, economic cooperation, and disarmament.

Khrushchev's proposal at the 20th Congress of the Communist Party in 1956 marked a significant shift in Soviet foreign policy. He formally introduced the concept of peaceful coexistence, arguing that war between capitalist and communist countries was not inevitable. This approach sought to reduce tensions with the West while maintaining ideological competition. Khrushchev's speech, known as the "Secret Speech," was part of his broader de-Stalinization efforts and had far-reaching consequences both within the Soviet Union and internationally. It led to a period of relative openness known as the "Khrushchev Thaw" and contributed to upheavals in Eastern Europe, including the Hungarian Revolution of 1956. However, Khrushchev's policies also faced criticism from hardliners within the Soviet leadership, ultimately contributing to his removal from power in 1964

Principles

The Sino-India Border Treaty of 1954, also known as the Panchsheel Agreement, was a significant diplomatic milestone between China and India. It outlined five principles of peaceful coexistence: mutual respect for territorial integrity and sovereignty, mutual non-aggression, mutual non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence. These principles, collectively known as Panchsheel (Five Virtues), were intended to serve as a framework for Sino-Indian relations and later became influential in shaping the Non-Aligned Movement. Despite its initial promise, the agreement did not prevent the Sino-Indian War of 1962, highlighting the challenges of implementing such principles in practice.

The Russian Revolutions of 1917 reshaped the Eastern Front, with the Bolsheviks taking power and signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk in 1918, ending Russia's involvement in the war. Germany's final offensives in 1918 failed to secure victory, and Allied counter-offensives, bolstered by American troops, gradually pushed German forces back. Internal unrest led to revolutions in Germany and Austria-Hungary, resulting in the collapse of their monarchies. The war concluded with the Armistice on November 11, 1918, marking the end of fighting on the Western Front and paving the way for peace negotiations.

WWI Summary

World War I began in 1914 with initial German successes in the West halted at the Battle of the Marne, while Russia suffered a significant defeat at Tannenberg in the East. The war quickly devolved into grueling trench warfare on both fronts, characterized by static positions and heavy casualties (Verdun, 1916). Germany's use of submarine warfare, exemplified by the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, heightened tensions with neutral countries. The conflict expanded globally with Japan joining in 1914 and the United States in 1917, the latter prompted by unrestricted submarine warfare, the Zimmermann Telegram, and economic interests.

Halford Mackinder's Heartland Theory, proposed in 1904, posited that control of Eastern Europe was pivotal for dominating the larger "World Island" comprising Eurasia and Africa, encapsulated in his famous dictum: "Who rules East Europe commands the Heartland; who rules the Heartland commands the World Island; who rules the World Island commands the World." This theory underscored the geopolitical significance of Central Asia and influenced various expansionist policies, including Nazi Germany's "lebensraum" strategy and Soviet efforts to secure influence in Eastern Europe during the Cold War.

Heartland theory

French efforts were hampered by several factors, including the limited effectiveness of tanks in dense jungle terrain, a lack of strong air support, and reliance on colonial troops. The Việt Minh, on the other hand, benefited from substantial popular support, which allowed them to recruit a sizable regular army. The war saw significant casualties on both sides, with estimates ranging from 400,000 to 842,707 military deaths and between 125,000 and 400,000 civilian deaths. Both sides were accused of committing war crimes, including the killing of civilians, rape, and torture. The conflict reached its climax at the Battle of Điện Biên Phủ in 1954, where the Việt Minh achieved a decisive victory over French forces. This defeat led to the Geneva Accords, which temporarily divided Vietnam at the 17th parallel and set the stage for the subsequent Vietnam War.

Indochina war

The First Indochina War (1946-1954) was a complex conflict that emerged from the power vacuum left after World War II. In March 1945, Japan ousted the Vichy French administration and installed Emperor Bảo Đại as the nominal head of an independent Vietnam. Following Japan's surrender, Hồ Chí Minh's Việt Minh attempted to establish control, declaring independence on September 2, 1945. The war officially began on December 19, 1946, when Việt Minh forces attacked French positions in Hanoi. The conflict was characterized by asymmetrical warfare, with the Việt Minh employing guerrilla tactics against the technologically superior French forces. The Việt Minh used innovative strategies, including direct artillery fire, convoy ambushes, and anti-aircraft weaponry to impede French land and air operations.

General Douglas MacArthur was appointed Commander of UN Forces in Korea on July 7, leading a coalition of 22 nations under the UN flag. The conflict escalated as UN and South Korean forces were pushed back to the Pusan perimeter in the south. MacArthur's bold amphibious landing at Inchon in September 1950 turned the tide, allowing UN forces to recapture Seoul and advance into North Korea. However, China's intervention in October 1950 pushed UN forces back to South Korea. The war ultimately resulted in a stalemate near the original 38th parallel, with an armistice signed on July 27, 1953. This conflict significantly intensified Cold War tensions and led to increased militarization in the region, with the U.S. maintaining a large military presence in South Korea to this day

Korean war

The Korean War (1950-1953) began on June 25, 1950, when North Korean forces crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. The United States quickly convened an emergency meeting of the UN Security Council, which passed a resolution declaring the invasion a threat to international peace and security. On June 27, President Harry S. Truman ordered U.S. naval and air support for South Korean forces, and the UN Security Council recommended member nations assist in repelling the North Korean attack.

The U.S. also intervened in Nicaragua during the 1980s by supporting the Contras, a rebel group fighting against the Sandinista government, which had close ties to the Soviet Union. Furthermore, the U.S. played a role in Guatemala's 1954 coup that overthrew President Jacobo Árbenz, who had implemented land reforms perceived as leftist and threatening to American business interests. This history of intervention often included backing authoritarian regimes that aligned with U.S. interests, even when they suppressed democratic movements and human rights within their countries.

Latin America

In Latin America, the United States implemented its Containment policy to prevent the spread of communism and maintain its influence in the region, often through covert operations and support for authoritarian regimes. A notable example of this was the Bay of Pigs invasion in 1961, where the CIA attempted to overthrow Fidel Castro's communist government in Cuba, ultimately resulting in a humiliating failure for the U.S. This event marked a significant escalation in U.S. involvement in Latin America, as it sought to counteract the perceived threat of communism just 90 miles from its shores. Additionally, the U.S. supported anti-communist governments across the region, including the military coup in Chile in 1973 that ousted democratically elected President Salvador Allende, replacing him with General Augusto Pinochet's brutal dictatorship.

Internally, China underwent significant political changes during this period. The Chinese Revolution of 1911-1912 established the Republic of China under Sun Yat-Sen, marking the end of imperial rule. The Guomindang (Nationalist Party) consolidated its power between 1926 and 1928 under the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek. However, the country faced continued challenges, including the Mukden incident in 1931, which led to the Japanese occupation of Manchuria. The Chinese Communist Party, led by Mao Zedong, undertook the Long March (1934-1935) to escape Nationalist forces, setting the stage for future conflict. The period culminated in the Japanese attack and occupation of China from 1937 to 1945, which devastated the country and profoundly impacted its political and social landscape.

China under foreign occupation

China experienced a tumultuous period of foreign intervention and internal upheaval from the mid-19th to the mid-20th century. The Opium War (1840-1842) between the United Kingdom and China marked the beginning of this era, resulting in the cession of Hong Kong and the forced opening of China to foreign trade. This was followed by the Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895), which further weakened China's position in East Asia. In 1899, the United States implemented its "open door" policy, ostensibly to maintain China's territorial integrity while ensuring equal access to Chinese markets for all nations. The Japanese-Russian War (1904-1905) led to increased Japanese influence in Manchuria, while Japan's "21 demands" in 1915 sought to further expand its control over China.

UNO

The United Nations Organization (UNO) was founded in 1945 to replace the ineffective League of Nations, with the primary goal of maintaining international peace and security after the devastation of World War II. Initially established with 51 member states, the UN has since expanded to 193 members, providing a platform for global cooperation through its key organs, including the General Assembly and the Security Council, which work towards collective security, economic development, human rights promotion, and disarmament.

The UN's headquarters is in New York City, with additional offices in Geneva and Vienna, and it operates under the guiding principle that all nations should have equal representation and work together to resolve conflicts peacefully.

Cooperation

Despite the overall tension, there were instances of cooperation between the superpowers, such as the Austrian State Treaty of 1955, which restored Austria's sovereignty under the condition of neutrality. The establishment of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in 1956 promoted the peaceful use of nuclear energy. However, competition remained fierce, particularly in the Space Race. The Soviet Union's launch of Sputnik in 1957 and Yuri Gagarin's space flight in 1961 marked significant advancements in Soviet space achievements, intensifying the technological rivalry between the two superpowers. Throughout the Cold War, high-level summits between leaders of both sides occasionally took place in attempts to ease tensions and negotiate arms control agreements.

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Competition

The Cold War led to the formation of two distinct ideological and military blocs, with NATO and the Warsaw Pact as their respective military alliances. NATO, formed in 1949, represented the Western bloc led by the United States, while the Warsaw Pact, established in 1955, united the Eastern bloc under Soviet leadership. This division was exemplified by key events such as the Budapest Uprising in 1956, where Soviet forces crushed a Hungarian revolt, demonstrating their control over Eastern Europe. The construction of the Berlin Wall in 1961 became a powerful symbol of the division between East and West. The ideological divide also spread to Asia, as evidenced by conflicts like the Korean War and the Vietnam War.

GATT

The General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT) was established in 1947 as a precursor to the World Trade Organization (WTO), which was formed in 1995. GATT aimed to reduce barriers to international trade through multilateral negotiations and established key principles such as non-discrimination, reciprocity, transparency, and binding commitments among member states.

It facilitated several rounds of trade negotiations that led to significant tariff reductions and trade liberalization, promoting a more interconnected global economy and setting the stage for future trade agreements under the WTO framework.