Evolution of english language

Evolution of the English language, culture, and society of the English-speaking countries

Jon Ederra Fernández Ammar El Dabete Arribas Noelia Ivars Almiñana Benito Reimundo Díaz-Fierros Beatriz Rodríguez Serrano

evolution of the English language and culture

?-Present-day

1450-1750

450- 1066

1750 - Present-day

1066-1450

Old English

?-450 AD

Early Modern English

Middle English

Early History

Late Modern English

EARLY HISTORY

From 750 BC to 450 AD

Roman Invasion

Iron Age

British Iron Age

Before the arrival of the Romans, Britain was no more than a geographical entity. The Celts inhabited the island from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages. The name ‘Britain’ comes from one of the Celtic tribes living in Britain at that time, the Bretons or Britons. These Celtic peoples were part of a much wider culture that stretched across much of Europe, from the Iberian Peninsula to the British Isles. Around 500-400 BC, iron began to be used to make tools and weapons, gradually replacing bronze, ushering in a new technological and economic era. This change favoured the expansion of Celtic communities, as iron was more durable and effective for the construction of tools and military equipment. During this period, the Celtic tribes developed a complex society with government structures and trading relationships between them. Celtic influence in Britain left a significant mark on culture, religious beliefs and social organisation.

What was life like for the people?

Remains have been found of settlements consisting of individual stone houses, set in landscaped plots along streets, suggesting a structured organisation of communities. In addition, ruins of large circular houses with thatched roofs have also been discovered, a typical construction of the period, designed to suit the climatic conditions and available materials. Inside these dwellings, the central fire was a fundamental element: it provided warmth during the cold months, illuminated the space and, at the same time, served as a means of cooking food, creating a warm and functional environment for daily life. These settlements reflect not only the adaptability of people to their environment, but also a social organisation and lifestyle based on closeness to nature.

What was their diet like?

Food during the Iron Age consisted of bread, cereals, meat from hunted animals such as wild boar, as well as eggs, tubers, wild herbs, fish from nearby rivers and lakes. People also took advantage of fruits, berries and seeds that they could gather in their surroundings. The diet varied considerably according to the region and the customs of each tribe. Food could depend on the natural resources available in their local area, as well as the farming, hunting and fishing techniques each tribe employed. In addition, the variety and quantity of food consumed could be influenced by factors such as the season, trade between neighbouring tribes, or the practice of livestock and agriculture.

What was the economy like?

This era was mainly characterised by an agricultural economy, which was the basis of society. However, it also saw important developments in various fields, such as warfare. In trade, trade networks extended across different regions. Agriculture, as well as being fundamental to the economy, saw improvements in cultivation techniques and the domestication of animals, which allowed for an increase in production. Crafts also flourished, with advances in metallurgy, pottery and construction.

Society and religion

In the Iron Age, more than 400 gods and goddesses were worshipped in various cultures and tribes. These gods and goddesses were related to nature, fertility, war and the elements. Agriculture was the basis of life in the Iron Age, providing the necessary food for the tribes and playing a central role in economic and social activities. Religious festivals probably followed the rhythm of the agricultural year, marking key moments in the cultivation cycle and rural life. Prominent among these festivals were Beltane, celebrated on 1 May, a festival symbolising the arrival of the warm season and the beginning of the grazing season. On this day, cattle were moved to the open fields, and ritual bonfires were lit to protect the herds and ensure a good harvest.

What were druids?

Druids played a crucial role in Iron Age society, being regarded as figures of great power and respect, even more important than tribal leaders in many cases. They were seen as intermediaries between the gods and humans, and were attributed with the ability to foretell the future, which gave them considerable spiritual and political authority. In addition to being priests, druids also had other essential roles in the community. They could be healers, using knowledge of herbs and natural remedies to treat illnesses; judges, settling disputes and maintaining order in the tribe; and teachers, passing on knowledge, traditions and laws.

Curiosities

Maiden Castle, located in Dorset, is an impressive structure covering an area equivalent to 50 football pitches. This massive fort is considered possible evidence of Iron Age Britain due to its size and architectural features. The site, known for its impressive ramparts and strategic position on high ground, may have been a stronghold used by Celtic tribes.

Roman Invasion

The Romans attempted to invade Britain on several occasions, and finally began the occupation in 55 BC under Julius Caesar, although it was in AD 43, under Emperor Claudius, that the occupation was consolidated. To improve control, the Romans built a network of roads. In AD 122, Emperor Hadrian ordered the construction of the famous Hadrian's Wall, which marked the border between Britain and the unconquered lands to the north. In 140 AD, the Romans managed to conquer the north of the island, corresponding to modern-day Scotland, although they were never able to completely subdue the region. The Roman presence in Britain transformed the region in terms of infrastructure, architecture and culture.

Religion

In 380 AD, Christianity was officially established as the religion of the Roman Empire by Emperor Theodosius I. Prior to this change, the Roman Empire had practiced a polytheistic religious system, worshipping multiple gods and goddesses. During the early centuries of Christianity, Christians were subjected to severe persecution, especially under Emperor Nero, who blamed them for the burning of Rome in 64 AD. This led to numerous tortures and executions, as Christians refused to worship the Roman gods. Over time, however, Christianity gained a following, and after the Edict of Milan in 313 AD, which legalised the religion, its influence grew enormously.

In the years that followed, particularly in the 5th century, Rome began to face new threats. The Vikings, along with other Germanic peoples, attacked the city on several occasions. In this context, many Roman soldiers were called back to the city to defend it against these invaders, resulting in a reduced military presence in provinces such as Britain. This weakening of the Roman presence in Britain contributed to the eventual collapse of Roman control over the island, which occurred in AD 410. The withdrawal of troops left British communities vulnerable to attack and the dissolution of the Roman order in the region.

English language

Latin, as the official language of the Roman Empire, took hold in all the regions under its rule, including Britannia, where it left a lasting impression. This influence was especially notable due to the prolonged Roman presence in Britain, which lasted almost 400 years. During this time, Latin was not only used in administration, commerce and education, but also had an impact on people's daily lives. Constant contact between the Romans and local tribes contributed to many Latin words being incorporated into Old English, especially in areas related to administration, government, military, religion and architecture. In addition, the Romans introduced the Latin alphabet, which replaced previous writing systems and laid the foundation for the evolution of the English language.

Fall of Rome

In 410 AD, the Roman Empire, already weakened by invasions and internal crises, suffered a decisive blow when the Visigoths, under the leadership of Alaric I, sacked Rome. This attack symbolised the final collapse of Roman power in the West. Faced with the growing threat of invaders on the continent, Emperor Honorius decided to withdraw the last Roman troops from Britain to defend Italy. As a result, the last Roman region officially left the island, marking the end of Roman control over Britain, which had lasted almost 400 years.

OLD ENGLISH

From 460 to 1066

The Old English Era , known as the Anglo-Saxon Period, starts in 460 with the Germanic migrations into Britain, Anglo-Saxon invasions, and ends with the Norman Conquest, going through the viking invasions. This era is marked by significant cultural, political, and linguistic developments, along with dramatic shifts in power and influence. These are the most important events of these ages:

Germanic Migrations

Christianization

Viking Invasions and Danelaw

Unification of England

The Norman Conquest

Germanic Migrations

c. 410–600

• As the Roman withdrawal from Britain (c. 410), Germanic tribes like the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes migrated to the island, establishing numerous kingdoms like Wessex, Mercia, Northumbria, and East Anglia.

• The native Britons were pushed to the west and north.

Christianization

597–7th century

• St. Augustine of Canterbury was sent by Pope Gregory the Great to convert the Anglo-Saxons in 597.

• Conversion led to the establishment of monastic centers.

Viking Invasions and Danelaw

Late 8th–11th century

• Viking raids began with the sacking of Lindisfarne in 793, escalating into large-scale invasions.

• The Treaty of Wedmore (878) under Alfred the Great divided England, establishing the Danelaw, where Norse law prevailed.

• Alfred promoted education, translated works into Old English, and strengthened defenses.

Unification of England

10th century

• Kingdoms unified to fight the Vikings and Kings like Edward the Elder and Æthelstan (the first king to rule a unified England, crowned in 927) consolidated Anglo-Saxon rule.

The Norman Conquest

1066

• The period ended with the defeat of King Harold II by William the Conqueror at the Battle of Hastings.

• Norman rule brought significant changes to governance, land ownership, and language.

Cultural and Linguistic Highlights

Literature flourished with works like Beowulf, The Wanderer, and The Seafarer.

Monasteries became centers of learning, producing manuscripts and chronicles.

Old English Language

Religious Influence

MIDDLE AGE

From 1066 to 1450

Following his invasion and conquest of England in 1066, William the Conqueror ascended the throne and established a new government, incorporating French-speaking nobles.

Before 1066

After 1066

Before 1066

Before the Norman invasion of 1066, Old English was the dominant language spoken in England. It originated from Old Norse and the dialects of Old Germanic tribes, specifically the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes (Durkin, 2013). Old English featured four main dialects: The language was written phonetically, based on how it sounded, and made extensive use of inflections to modify verbs, nouns, adjectives, and pronouns. During this period, Old English relied almost entirely on its native vocabulary, without incorporating words from Latin or other foreign languages.

• Northumbrian.
• Mercian.
• West Saxon.
• Kentish.

After 1066

The Norman Invasion of 1066 brought significant changes to the English language. Within two decades of the Battle of Hastings, the entire Old English aristocracy had been removed from power. Historian Robert Bartlett referred to this shift as the “swiftest and most thorough replacement of one ruling class by another in English history” (Bartlett, 2010). This dramatic political and social transformation set the stage for the blending of Norman French with Old English, which eventually evolved into Middle English. When the Normans took control in 1066, they introduced a completely unfamiliar culture and language to England. After their rise to power, the aristocracy abandoned Old English in favor of Norman French and Latin (Boxwell). French became the language of the ruling class, merchants, and legal courts, while Latin was primarily used by the clergy (Morris). Meanwhile, Old English remained the language of the common people. This shift away from Old English among the elite created opportunities for the primary language of the land to evolve. As ordinary people interacted with non-native English speakers, the language began to simplify to facilitate communication. As the English language evolved, it began incorporating vocabulary from French and Latin. Rather than replacing old words, these additions expanded the language’s vocabulary. This transformation eventually gave rise to what is now called Middle English. The practice of adopting words from other languages became a defining characteristic of English and continues to this day.

Bestiaries

During this time, bestiaries, such as those from Aberdeen and Rocheste gained popularity as tools for teaching Christian values. In these collections, animals were often given symbolic meanings, such as the rat representing the devil. The illustrations and descriptions in bestiaries were often infused with imaginative and fantastical elements.

Beowulf

Anonymous

Beowulf is an Old English epic poem composed of 3,182 alliterative long lines. It is considered one of the oldest and most significant works of Old English literature and possibly the oldest surviving long poem in the language. Written in England between the 8th and early 11th centuries, its author remains unknown and is referred to by scholars as the “Beowulf poet.” The story is set in Scandinavia and follows Beowulf, a hero of the Geats, as he aids Hroðgar, the king of the Danes. Hroðgar's mead hall, Heorot, is being terrorized by a monster named Grendel. Beowulf defeats Grendel, but the creature’s mother later seeks revenge and is also slain by the hero. Returning home to Geatland (modern Götaland in Sweden), Beowulf eventually becomes king of the Geats. Fifty years later, he confronts and kills a dragon threatening his kingdom but sustains fatal injuries in the process. After his death, Beowulf is honored with a burial in a tumulus, or burial mound, in Geatland.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

Anonymous

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight was composed between 1340 and 1400 in the West Midlands of England and embodies the traits of the romance genre. The poem is part of the Alliterative Revival, a movement that revived the Old English alliterative verse following the Norman Invasion. Written in Middle English, it specifically uses the dialect of North West Midland English. The poem also has influences from French Arthurian literature.

Writing history again

1136

In his Historia Regum Britanniae, Geoffrey of Monmouth weaves a mythological narrative connecting Britain’s prehistory to Latin culture, marking the origins of the Arthurian legend. During this period, Latin and Anglo-Norman emerged as the dominant languages of authority, associated with the upper class and the legal system.

Disputing over land

Hundred year's war

Middle English

Back to English

The hundred year´s war

1337-1453

The Hundred Years' War was a prolonged and complex conflict between England and France, driven by territorial disputes and the struggle for control of the French throne. Lasting roughly 116 years through the 14th and 15th centuries, the war began when English King Edward III, who was the grandson of France's Philip IV, was denied his claim to the throne and launched an attack in retaliation. Although the fighting wasn't constant and was interrupted by lengthy periods of peace, several key battles took place. Notable conflicts, such as the Battle of Agincourt, demonstrated the strength of the English forces, while French leaders like Joan of Arc motivated their people to defend their land. In the end, France emerged victorious, expelling the English from the country, except for the important town of Calais on the English Channel. The long conflict drained both nations, but it strengthened the French monarchy and prompted England to shift its attention toward expanding the British Empire.

Back to English

English became the language used to demand recognition and attention from the highest authorities." (The Adventure of English, p. 65) The Plague had caused the death of many clergymen, greatly reducing the number of Latin speakers. In response, King Henry IV, who ascended the throne in 1367, restored English as the official language of the Court.

Middle English

After enduring centuries of French invasion, the English language had evolved into various dialects. Chaucer spoke the London dialect, which was regarded as the hub of economic and cultural influence. His work was quickly adopted by scholars across Britain as a key reference for the English language.

In 1476, William Caxton set up the first printing press in London. It is thought that one of the earliest works printed was Geoffrey Chaucer’s The Canterbury Tales (1387-1400), which quickly gained widespread popularity.

Another well-known and widely admired work was the morality play Everyman, an allegorical drama that depicts a soul's battle to choose between good and evil, as well as vices and virtues.

EARLY MODERN ENGLISH

From 1450 to 1750

It is a crucial period in the evolution of the English language due to several milestones. This period is characterized by linguistic, cultural and social changes and is hardly influenced by historical events. Inside of it, we can distinguish three main periods: Renaissance, the Reformation and the Age of Enlightenment. One of the most important changes was that there was more and more access to literacy and culture due to the invention of the printing press.

The protestant reform

The Protestant Reformation involved the spread of religious text such as the King James Bible in 1611.

King James´ Bible made a big impact on English literature because it was the most important English translation of the Bible until this moment.

The first English dictionary

Robert Cawdrey was the first one to write an English dictionary which is known as “Table Alphabeticall”

Renaissance

It is known as the “Rebirth”. The changes that were happening led society and mainly authors to remember the values of the past. There was a strong interest in the classical period, that caused a major impact on society in terms of organization and national identity. Besides, there was a great development of literature, arts, philosophy... In fact, we can refer to Humanism, which was an intellectual movement within the Renaissance that promoted an anthropocentric vision of the world. Within the Renaissance we also must highlight Queen Elizabeth I, who represented Renaissance´ values.

Golden Age of literature

Printing press´ influence and relevant authors such as:

Christopher Marlowe

John Milton

William Shakespeare

boosted reading throughout the population.

Standardization of grammar and spelling

There were huge changes in pronunciation (the Great Vowel Shift) and a standardization of written English helped by the introduction of the printing press.

LATE MODERN ENGLISH

From 1750 to Present-day

Late Modern English covers the period from 1750 to the present day and reflects the profound social, economic and technological changes of the last few centuries. Vocabulary is the main difference between Early Modern English and Late Modern English, driven mainly by two historical events: the Industrial Revolution and the expansion of the British Empire.

The Industrial Revolution

This period was the scene of a convergence of crucial events that transformed not only the socio-economic fabric of society, but also the forms of the English language. As the Industrial Revolution introduced new technologies, tools and processes, new vocabularies were also born to reflect these developments, such as technical terms for machinery and industrial processes that remain current today. With the advancement of industry and the expansion of the British Empire across the continents, English was propelled towards new horizons, emerging as a global force in communication. As mentioned, this period impacted every aspect of daily life, from agricultural production to nascent industry. The introduction of machinery accelerated the manufacturing process. However, despite the advances, working conditions remained extremely harsh. The Industrial Revolution brought about a radical change in society, with new inventions and a working class fighting for better conditions. This can be seen in literary works such as Charles Dickens' Oliver Twist. With the expansion of printing presses and the rise in literacy rates, the written word took on renewed relevance. This made the standardization of the language indispensable, leading to the publication of fundamental works such as Samuel Johnson's monumental dictionary.

Johnson’s Dictionary

1755

Johnson’s Dictionary was one of the most famous dictionaries of the world. First published in 1755, Samuel Johnson, along with a small team of assistants, devoted nine years to the arduous task of compiling this dictionary. The dictionary contains more than 40,000 definitions and selects almost 114,000 illustrative quotations from all fields of knowledge and literature. And it is still used these days.

Culture

21th Century

20th Century

19th Century

19th Century

In 1808, and by the end of the century, nearly every government had banned slavery. By 1833 slavery was banned thought the British Empire because of The Slavery Abolition Act. Child and women abuse were interdicted in manufactories. 1825, first steam locomotive as a way of transport. 1884, first volume from Oxford University Encyclopedia is published.

Info

20th Century

I World War (1914-1918): It is also known as the Great War in that time. After the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, in 1914, a war broke out that spanned all of Europe and lasted until 1918.

II World War (1939-1945):The war began when Germany invaded Poland on September 1. Then, Britain and France declared war on Germany.

During and after the World Wars, English established itself as a language of power, diplomacy and science, especially due to the role of the United States in global politics and economics.

21th Century

Charles Babbage and his ideas laid the foundation for what we would call the digital age. He is also known as the ‘father of the computer’. This is due to the creation of the analytical machine, which included many elements present in today's computers such as a control unit, memory...

The digital period began around 1980 with the appearance of the Internet. Nowadays, it is an integral part of our daily lives. Technology has revolutionised the way we live, work and interact, from social networking platforms to online shopping and digital communication. And also how we teach, most schools now have digital boards on their classrooms and tools for create teaching materials like Canva, Genially, StoryJumper, Moodle platforms…

Language

21th Century

19th Century

Digitalisation and the internet have transformed English into a globalised language, with a constant flow of neologisms and expressions from diverse cultures. The use of internet and other communications tools have developed their own use of English, one filled up and mostly made of acronyms such as ASAP (As Soon As Possible), IDK (I Don’t Know), and so on. Also new words like “software”, “download”, “meme”, “blogger”, “hashtag”…

English expanded globally thanks to the British Empire and the Industrial Revolution, adapting with technical, scientific and colonial culture words. There were important advances in lexicography, such as the creation of the Oxford English Dictionary.

20th Century

Globalisation, world wars and technology drove rapid change. Scientific and American terms were integrated, while the media spread regional variants and dialects.

W.A.S.P

The word is an acronym from White Anglo-Saxon Protestant. The term is associated with white Americans who defend traditional values and reject the influence of any ethnicity, nationality or culture alien to yours. It is used to refer to Protestant Christian white Americans.

Bibliography and webgraphy I

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Bibliography and webgraphy II

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Oxford English Dictionary

The Oxford English Dictionary was originally published in installments between 1884 and 1928. A one-volume supplement was published in 1933, and four further supplementary volumes were published between 1972 and 1986. A complete second edition was published in 1989, comprising the original OED merged with the supplementary volumes, together with 5,000 entirely new entries.

video

Shakespeare

William Shakespeare is the most important author of this period, and also one of the most relevant authors in English Literature. He is known for creating very complex characters, “human” characters. He focused on human condition, so for that he still has influence in literature nowadays.