Global Citizenship Education and Democratic Participation in Europe
start
content
2. Current democratic challenges
3. The impact of CE
1. GCE
Longitudinal studies show the impact of citizenship education on political participation.
Learn more about Global Citizenship Education
Are young people less politically engaged? And why?
4. Findings Literature
6. policy recommendations
Read more about the different approaches discussed in the literature on successful citizenship education.
5. EU policies
The final part includes policy recommendations which were developed based on the findings.
Current policies at EU level are presented here.
You can explore the content of the policy pill freely by going back and forth between the different topics using the house icon on each slide, which will bring you back to this overview, or you can be guided through all pages by clicking the arrow in the right bottom corner.
Global Citizenship Education
GLobal Citizenship Education (GCE)
The broad framework of GCE inludes several educational approaches, including citizenship education (CE).
GCE is understood as “political education on a global scale which prepares learners to develop a sense of belonging to the global community, to get involved and to take an active role in society”.
Citizenship Education =
- an educational theory and practice concerned with promoting a desired kind of citizenship in a given society
- membership in a political community
To learn more about GCE, access our previous policy pill about the topic:
GCE Policy Pill
current democratic challenges
Click the icons for more information!
The Challenge: "shocking absenteeism"
Young people are perceived to be less engaged in politics and society. The low voter turnout at elections is often mentioned as evidence that young people are no longere interested in politics.
The reason : No representation
While young people are interested in politics and other civic activities, they often feel unheard or not represented by traditional parties. Their trust in existing political institution decreased as well.
The solution : Citizenship education
Education must go beyond teaching about institutions to instilling democratic values. While young people feel prepared for voting, further steps are needed to promote democratic engagement experiences.
THe impact of citizenship education
The impact of Citizenship Education
Numerous articles analyze the effects of citizenship education on various learning outcomes, focusing on the impact of education on diverse forms of democratic participation beyond voting (Dezelan, 2023). Research shows that education significantly influences civic engagement and voting behavior, particularly in EU elections, where increased time in education correlates with higher voting likelihood (Campbell, 2006; European Commission, 2024; Zalc et al., 2019). Three longitudinal studies indicate that citizenship education can enhance democratic participation.
Read more about the longitudinal studies here:
findings literature
key Findings in the literature
Numerous articles analyze the effects of citizenship education on various learning outcomes, focusing on the impact of education on diverse forms of democratic participation beyond voting (Dezelan, 2023).
qualified staff
whole school approach
bulding confidence
cross-curricular
digital element
participatory approach
EU Policies
EU Policies on GLobal Citizenship education
These are some of the main policies used to coordinate GCE on an EU level. A lot of them are interconnected and build on each other.
TFEU
2015 Declaration
achieving EEA by 2025
Erasmus+
EU YOuth Strategy
EU policies in this field still leave room for improvement, read more about the areas that are currently lacking:
Areas for improvement
Areas for improvement
While some policies at the EU level exist, there is still room for improvement: 1. The materials available about citizenship education are dispersed and do not constitute a holistic picture of what CE looks like in the EU 2. There is no common definition of GCE 3. The data available about CE is from 2017-2018 and outdated 4. Greater coherence among funding schemes would help to streamline efforts 5. There are no EU documents which offer the EU's perspective on CE with milestones and quality criteria as guidance 6. National manuals can be outdated and/or not applicable to young people or children
Policy Recommendations
Recommendations for GCE in the EU
SOLIDAR Foundation's recommendations on Global Citizenship Education for democratic participation in the EU
Citizenship education is particularly effective for young people, a key target group of EU policies. To enhance political participation through policy development, several conditions must be met for efficient GCE in the EU. These conditions emerge from the analysis of the available evidence on the effects of citizenship education on democratic participation and the inquiry of currently existing EU frameworks in the area of citizenship education.
Policy Recommendations
Recommendations for GCE in the EU
- Participatory, whole-school, and cross-curricular approaches haven been proven to bring sustainable change in attitudes and behaviour.
- Citizenship Education is important for the democratic engagement of underpriviledged students.
- Including a digital element in education is required to increase the level of democratic engagement on digital platforms.
- Training for teachers on democratic citizenship enhances the confidence of teachers.
- Citizenship Education falls under the EU mandate and the EU should create common policies and develop a shared definition of GCE. Additionally, the EU must follow its own agenda and develop programmatic frameworks.
- VET students should be included in all mamber states in the citizenship education.
- Better cohesion among the existing funding schemes.
- There should be more research about the effects of citizenship education in the EU. Existing platforms like Eurydice or the European Education and Training Monitor should be updated.
Sources
The sources can be found in the position paper, which can be downloaded from solidar.org.
Download the paper
Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the European Union nor EACEA can be held responsible for them.
Building Confidence
Young people’s civic engagement can be fostered by building their confidence in their civic and political capacities (Manganelli, Lucidi, & Alivernini, 2014). According to available studies, several approaches to citizenship education significantly positively impact democratic attitudes and behavior.
2015 Declaration
The 2015 “Declaration on promoting citizenship and the common values of freedom, tolerance, and non-discrimination through education” highlights the need for civic competences and critical thinking but lacks concrete implementation steps. Its adaption signified an increasing emphasis on the promotion of European values in education but the Declaration defines no concrete steps towards achieving these goals.
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) establishes the EU's role in supporting and coordinating education among Member States, emphasizing access, quality, and cooperation (European Union, 2007). It aims to enhance the European dimension of education and promote youth civic engagement through education (art. 165). Despite this, many educational systems in Europe face challenges like bullying and discrimination, with global citizenship education (GCE) proposed as a solution to these issues (European Education and Culture Executive Agency & European Commission, 2023).
Cross-curricular Approach
McDevitt and Kiousis (2006) and Holbein (2017) emphasize cooperation with families and the community and a cross-curricular approach to citizenship education. Successful citizenship education practices described in these papers involved various activities beyond a single school project or subject. The traditional approach of teaching civics as a single subject can strengthen political knowledge, but it does not lead to higher voter turnout or other behavioral manifestations (Campbell & Niemi, 2016; Goodwin, Greasley, John, & Richardson, 2010; Weinschenk & Dawes, 2022). The same applies to education about the EU. Teaching through a single subject focusing on information transfer improves knowledge about the EU but only slightly affects attitudes towards the EU and motivation to vote (Oberle & Forstmann, 2015). In contrast, simulation games promote both knowledge and trust in EU institutions (Oberle & Leunig, 2016). Experiential learning thus provides better results for influencing attitudes and motivation.
GCE as the solution
To sustain democracy, education must go beyond teaching about institutions to instilling democratic values. While young people feel prepared for voting, further steps are needed to promote democratic engagement experiences. Global Citizenship Education (GCE) enhances learners' democratic participation by fostering a sense of belonging to a global community. It aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 4, which emphasizes quality education, including human rights and citizenship education. GCE encompasses voting and various forms of civic engagement, such as community projects and advocacy, while promoting values, knowledge, and attitudes. Global citizens uphold human rights, respect diversity, and understand local and global issues. In the EU context, educational approaches focus on strengthening democratic values and trust in institutions.
Achieving the EEA by 2025
The "Achieving European Education Area by 2025" communication mentions citizenship education twice but primarily focuses on inclusive environments and vocational training without adequately connecting VET to citizenship. This oversight risks excluding a significant portion of students from lifelong citizenship education. While the notion of citizenship education is mentioned only twice in the document, inclusive education and a safe learning environment are central to the establishment of the European Education Area. The document mentions a significant contribution of the Erasmus+ programme for the promotion of citizenship, non-discrimination, and fundamental freedoms in the EU.
"Shocking Absenteeism"
The "shocking absenteeism" of young people in European elections has been a significant concern for scholars and policymakers for the past two decades. Studies have consistently shown a lack of intention among young voters to participate in electoral processes and civic activities. However, the 2019 European Parliament elections marked an unexpected shift, with a 14 percentage point increase in voter turnout among those under 25, reaching 42%. Even millennials aged 25-39, previously thought to have lost faith in democracies, increased their participation by 14 percentage points to 47%. While some experts attributed this change to updated voting calendars aligning European and national elections, the 2024 Eurobarometer study revealed that an average of 64% of young Europeans intended to vote, confirming a new trend in youth political engagement.
European Union Youth Strategy
The “European Union Youth Strategy (2019 – 2027)” invites member states and the Commission to foster democratic engagement of young people through education (European Union, 2018). Current EU strategies emphasize quality citizenship education as essential for fostering democratic engagement among youth. The "European Union Youth Strategy (2019-2027)" and the European Youth Goals advocate for citizenship education that includes knowledge of politics and experiential learning. The "European Declaration on Global Education 2050" stresses GCE's role in addressing global issues through participatory learning.
Politically interested, but not trusting estbalished parties or institutions
The low turnout among young voters has been a persistent issue, with age being a strong predictor of voting activity. However, recent trends show increasing youth participation, challenging the narrative of political apathy. Young people are interested in politics and civic activities but often feel unheard and unrepresented by traditional parties. Their concerns include the war in Europe, climate change, and rising living costs. Many young voters use alternative civic engagement platforms, which traditional parties struggle to reach. Consequently, in 2024, young voters in Germany, France, and Italy largely supported far-right parties, often criticized for anti-democratic narratives. This trend highlights a lack of trust in existing political institutions and a desire to vote against the status quo.
Participatory Approach
Participatory approaches central to citizenship education can be integrated throughout the curriculum in various subjects and extracurricular activities. Engaging and including students in their learning process gives them valuable experience in examining emerging issues and making choices relevant to their future (Blevins, LeCompte, Riggers-Piehl, Scholten, & Magill, 2021). Interestingly, participatory approaches in citizenship education particularly benefit socio-economically disadvantaged students. Their political engagement is more significantly impacted compared to their more privileged peers (Liu, Donbavand, Hoskins, Janmaat, & Kavadias, 2021). Thus, participatory citizenship education approaches can address inequalities in democratic participation across different social backgrounds.
Longitudinal studies provide answers
Longitudinal studies are especially helpful in documenting changes in behaviour or attitude over a longer period of time. The temporal element is especially important when looking at the impact of education on students attitude. For instance, Gill et al. (2018) found that students from schools emphasizing civic engagement were more likely to vote. Other studies highlight that family involvement in civic discussions amplifies the effects of school-based citizenship education (McDevitt & Kiousis, 2006). Additionally, Holbein (2017) demonstrated that early childhood education focused on social skills significantly impacts future voting behavior.
Whole School Approach
The school analyzed by Gill et al. (2018) follows a whole school approach that implies an inclusive and democratic school climate and governance, teaching and learning, as well as community cooperation (European Commission, 2015). All components of the whole-school approach are also identified by two other longitudinal studies as essential for achieving behavioral change. McDevitt and Kiousis (2006) and Holbein (2017) emphasize cooperation with families and the community and a cross-curricular approach to citizenship education.
Qualified Staff
Equipping school staff to implement effective citizenship education is crucial. Research shows a strong link between teacher qualifications and the civic competencies and political engagement of young people, highlighting the need for enhanced training for both current and future educators (Barr et al., 2015; Pontes, Henn, & Griffiths, 2019). While some teachers claim to promote citizenship education without specific training, a systematic and intentional approach is more effective (Holbein & Hillygus, 2020). Professional development focused on social and political issues significantly improves students' knowledge and skills through relevant content and participatory methods (Daas, ten Dam, & Dijkstra, 2016). Furthermore, incorporating a global perspective in teacher education is essential for fostering an understanding of interconnectedness among students (Schugurensky & Wolhuter, 2020). By prioritizing teacher qualifications in citizenship education, schools can better prepare students for informed and engaged citizenship in a complex world.
Digital Element
Many young people who feel unrepresented by traditional democratic institutions are active online, joining political groups, signing petitions, and donating money. Interaction and opinion exchange online foster a sense of inclusion in political deliberation. Digital platforms for civic engagement should reflect democratic and human rights values to encourage participation. Creating digital content is a step beyond discussion; students who learn to create and share content on social issues are more likely to engage in civic initiatives. Blogging about political issues enhances young people's political interest and self-efficacy. However, some teachers hesitate to allow peer opinion exchanges to avoid heated discussions, underscoring the need for educators to teach controversial issues effectively to strengthen democratic competences.
Erasmus+ Programme
The regulation on Erasmus+ objectives followed up on the themes indicated in the “Achieving European Education Area by 2025” communication a year later (European Parliament & Council of the European Union, 2021). The programme seeks to promote a European identity, encourage active citizenship, and boost participation in democratic processes. According to the Regulation text, these goals are achieved through approaches similar to GCE, such as studying or working abroad to promote intercultural learning, critical thinking, and getting involved in local and host communities to share experiences.
policy paper GCE and democratic participation
SOLIDAR Foundation
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Global Citizenship Education and Democratic Participation in Europe
start
content
2. Current democratic challenges
3. The impact of CE
1. GCE
Longitudinal studies show the impact of citizenship education on political participation.
Learn more about Global Citizenship Education
Are young people less politically engaged? And why?
4. Findings Literature
6. policy recommendations
Read more about the different approaches discussed in the literature on successful citizenship education.
5. EU policies
The final part includes policy recommendations which were developed based on the findings.
Current policies at EU level are presented here.
You can explore the content of the policy pill freely by going back and forth between the different topics using the house icon on each slide, which will bring you back to this overview, or you can be guided through all pages by clicking the arrow in the right bottom corner.
Global Citizenship Education
GLobal Citizenship Education (GCE)
The broad framework of GCE inludes several educational approaches, including citizenship education (CE).
GCE is understood as “political education on a global scale which prepares learners to develop a sense of belonging to the global community, to get involved and to take an active role in society”.
Citizenship Education =
To learn more about GCE, access our previous policy pill about the topic:
GCE Policy Pill
current democratic challenges
Click the icons for more information!
The Challenge: "shocking absenteeism"
Young people are perceived to be less engaged in politics and society. The low voter turnout at elections is often mentioned as evidence that young people are no longere interested in politics.
The reason : No representation
While young people are interested in politics and other civic activities, they often feel unheard or not represented by traditional parties. Their trust in existing political institution decreased as well.
The solution : Citizenship education
Education must go beyond teaching about institutions to instilling democratic values. While young people feel prepared for voting, further steps are needed to promote democratic engagement experiences.
THe impact of citizenship education
The impact of Citizenship Education
Numerous articles analyze the effects of citizenship education on various learning outcomes, focusing on the impact of education on diverse forms of democratic participation beyond voting (Dezelan, 2023). Research shows that education significantly influences civic engagement and voting behavior, particularly in EU elections, where increased time in education correlates with higher voting likelihood (Campbell, 2006; European Commission, 2024; Zalc et al., 2019). Three longitudinal studies indicate that citizenship education can enhance democratic participation.
Read more about the longitudinal studies here:
findings literature
key Findings in the literature
Numerous articles analyze the effects of citizenship education on various learning outcomes, focusing on the impact of education on diverse forms of democratic participation beyond voting (Dezelan, 2023).
qualified staff
whole school approach
bulding confidence
cross-curricular
digital element
participatory approach
EU Policies
EU Policies on GLobal Citizenship education
These are some of the main policies used to coordinate GCE on an EU level. A lot of them are interconnected and build on each other.
TFEU
2015 Declaration
achieving EEA by 2025
Erasmus+
EU YOuth Strategy
EU policies in this field still leave room for improvement, read more about the areas that are currently lacking:
Areas for improvement
Areas for improvement
While some policies at the EU level exist, there is still room for improvement: 1. The materials available about citizenship education are dispersed and do not constitute a holistic picture of what CE looks like in the EU 2. There is no common definition of GCE 3. The data available about CE is from 2017-2018 and outdated 4. Greater coherence among funding schemes would help to streamline efforts 5. There are no EU documents which offer the EU's perspective on CE with milestones and quality criteria as guidance 6. National manuals can be outdated and/or not applicable to young people or children
Policy Recommendations
Recommendations for GCE in the EU
SOLIDAR Foundation's recommendations on Global Citizenship Education for democratic participation in the EU
Citizenship education is particularly effective for young people, a key target group of EU policies. To enhance political participation through policy development, several conditions must be met for efficient GCE in the EU. These conditions emerge from the analysis of the available evidence on the effects of citizenship education on democratic participation and the inquiry of currently existing EU frameworks in the area of citizenship education.
Policy Recommendations
Recommendations for GCE in the EU
Sources
The sources can be found in the position paper, which can be downloaded from solidar.org.
Download the paper
Funded by the European Union. Views and opinions expressed are however those of the author(s) only and do not necessarily reflect those of the European Union or the European Education and Culture Executive Agency (EACEA). Neither the European Union nor EACEA can be held responsible for them.
Building Confidence
Young people’s civic engagement can be fostered by building their confidence in their civic and political capacities (Manganelli, Lucidi, & Alivernini, 2014). According to available studies, several approaches to citizenship education significantly positively impact democratic attitudes and behavior.
2015 Declaration
The 2015 “Declaration on promoting citizenship and the common values of freedom, tolerance, and non-discrimination through education” highlights the need for civic competences and critical thinking but lacks concrete implementation steps. Its adaption signified an increasing emphasis on the promotion of European values in education but the Declaration defines no concrete steps towards achieving these goals.
Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union
The Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union (TFEU) establishes the EU's role in supporting and coordinating education among Member States, emphasizing access, quality, and cooperation (European Union, 2007). It aims to enhance the European dimension of education and promote youth civic engagement through education (art. 165). Despite this, many educational systems in Europe face challenges like bullying and discrimination, with global citizenship education (GCE) proposed as a solution to these issues (European Education and Culture Executive Agency & European Commission, 2023).
Cross-curricular Approach
McDevitt and Kiousis (2006) and Holbein (2017) emphasize cooperation with families and the community and a cross-curricular approach to citizenship education. Successful citizenship education practices described in these papers involved various activities beyond a single school project or subject. The traditional approach of teaching civics as a single subject can strengthen political knowledge, but it does not lead to higher voter turnout or other behavioral manifestations (Campbell & Niemi, 2016; Goodwin, Greasley, John, & Richardson, 2010; Weinschenk & Dawes, 2022). The same applies to education about the EU. Teaching through a single subject focusing on information transfer improves knowledge about the EU but only slightly affects attitudes towards the EU and motivation to vote (Oberle & Forstmann, 2015). In contrast, simulation games promote both knowledge and trust in EU institutions (Oberle & Leunig, 2016). Experiential learning thus provides better results for influencing attitudes and motivation.
GCE as the solution
To sustain democracy, education must go beyond teaching about institutions to instilling democratic values. While young people feel prepared for voting, further steps are needed to promote democratic engagement experiences. Global Citizenship Education (GCE) enhances learners' democratic participation by fostering a sense of belonging to a global community. It aligns with Sustainable Development Goal 4, which emphasizes quality education, including human rights and citizenship education. GCE encompasses voting and various forms of civic engagement, such as community projects and advocacy, while promoting values, knowledge, and attitudes. Global citizens uphold human rights, respect diversity, and understand local and global issues. In the EU context, educational approaches focus on strengthening democratic values and trust in institutions.
Achieving the EEA by 2025
The "Achieving European Education Area by 2025" communication mentions citizenship education twice but primarily focuses on inclusive environments and vocational training without adequately connecting VET to citizenship. This oversight risks excluding a significant portion of students from lifelong citizenship education. While the notion of citizenship education is mentioned only twice in the document, inclusive education and a safe learning environment are central to the establishment of the European Education Area. The document mentions a significant contribution of the Erasmus+ programme for the promotion of citizenship, non-discrimination, and fundamental freedoms in the EU.
"Shocking Absenteeism"
The "shocking absenteeism" of young people in European elections has been a significant concern for scholars and policymakers for the past two decades. Studies have consistently shown a lack of intention among young voters to participate in electoral processes and civic activities. However, the 2019 European Parliament elections marked an unexpected shift, with a 14 percentage point increase in voter turnout among those under 25, reaching 42%. Even millennials aged 25-39, previously thought to have lost faith in democracies, increased their participation by 14 percentage points to 47%. While some experts attributed this change to updated voting calendars aligning European and national elections, the 2024 Eurobarometer study revealed that an average of 64% of young Europeans intended to vote, confirming a new trend in youth political engagement.
European Union Youth Strategy
The “European Union Youth Strategy (2019 – 2027)” invites member states and the Commission to foster democratic engagement of young people through education (European Union, 2018). Current EU strategies emphasize quality citizenship education as essential for fostering democratic engagement among youth. The "European Union Youth Strategy (2019-2027)" and the European Youth Goals advocate for citizenship education that includes knowledge of politics and experiential learning. The "European Declaration on Global Education 2050" stresses GCE's role in addressing global issues through participatory learning.
Politically interested, but not trusting estbalished parties or institutions
The low turnout among young voters has been a persistent issue, with age being a strong predictor of voting activity. However, recent trends show increasing youth participation, challenging the narrative of political apathy. Young people are interested in politics and civic activities but often feel unheard and unrepresented by traditional parties. Their concerns include the war in Europe, climate change, and rising living costs. Many young voters use alternative civic engagement platforms, which traditional parties struggle to reach. Consequently, in 2024, young voters in Germany, France, and Italy largely supported far-right parties, often criticized for anti-democratic narratives. This trend highlights a lack of trust in existing political institutions and a desire to vote against the status quo.
Participatory Approach
Participatory approaches central to citizenship education can be integrated throughout the curriculum in various subjects and extracurricular activities. Engaging and including students in their learning process gives them valuable experience in examining emerging issues and making choices relevant to their future (Blevins, LeCompte, Riggers-Piehl, Scholten, & Magill, 2021). Interestingly, participatory approaches in citizenship education particularly benefit socio-economically disadvantaged students. Their political engagement is more significantly impacted compared to their more privileged peers (Liu, Donbavand, Hoskins, Janmaat, & Kavadias, 2021). Thus, participatory citizenship education approaches can address inequalities in democratic participation across different social backgrounds.
Longitudinal studies provide answers
Longitudinal studies are especially helpful in documenting changes in behaviour or attitude over a longer period of time. The temporal element is especially important when looking at the impact of education on students attitude. For instance, Gill et al. (2018) found that students from schools emphasizing civic engagement were more likely to vote. Other studies highlight that family involvement in civic discussions amplifies the effects of school-based citizenship education (McDevitt & Kiousis, 2006). Additionally, Holbein (2017) demonstrated that early childhood education focused on social skills significantly impacts future voting behavior.
Whole School Approach
The school analyzed by Gill et al. (2018) follows a whole school approach that implies an inclusive and democratic school climate and governance, teaching and learning, as well as community cooperation (European Commission, 2015). All components of the whole-school approach are also identified by two other longitudinal studies as essential for achieving behavioral change. McDevitt and Kiousis (2006) and Holbein (2017) emphasize cooperation with families and the community and a cross-curricular approach to citizenship education.
Qualified Staff
Equipping school staff to implement effective citizenship education is crucial. Research shows a strong link between teacher qualifications and the civic competencies and political engagement of young people, highlighting the need for enhanced training for both current and future educators (Barr et al., 2015; Pontes, Henn, & Griffiths, 2019). While some teachers claim to promote citizenship education without specific training, a systematic and intentional approach is more effective (Holbein & Hillygus, 2020). Professional development focused on social and political issues significantly improves students' knowledge and skills through relevant content and participatory methods (Daas, ten Dam, & Dijkstra, 2016). Furthermore, incorporating a global perspective in teacher education is essential for fostering an understanding of interconnectedness among students (Schugurensky & Wolhuter, 2020). By prioritizing teacher qualifications in citizenship education, schools can better prepare students for informed and engaged citizenship in a complex world.
Digital Element
Many young people who feel unrepresented by traditional democratic institutions are active online, joining political groups, signing petitions, and donating money. Interaction and opinion exchange online foster a sense of inclusion in political deliberation. Digital platforms for civic engagement should reflect democratic and human rights values to encourage participation. Creating digital content is a step beyond discussion; students who learn to create and share content on social issues are more likely to engage in civic initiatives. Blogging about political issues enhances young people's political interest and self-efficacy. However, some teachers hesitate to allow peer opinion exchanges to avoid heated discussions, underscoring the need for educators to teach controversial issues effectively to strengthen democratic competences.
Erasmus+ Programme
The regulation on Erasmus+ objectives followed up on the themes indicated in the “Achieving European Education Area by 2025” communication a year later (European Parliament & Council of the European Union, 2021). The programme seeks to promote a European identity, encourage active citizenship, and boost participation in democratic processes. According to the Regulation text, these goals are achieved through approaches similar to GCE, such as studying or working abroad to promote intercultural learning, critical thinking, and getting involved in local and host communities to share experiences.