HIST 250 Scroll 4 Fall 2024

Sources:

1. Ding, Yuan, Zhiliang Ma, and Tianyu Feng. “Water Transportation.” In The Changjiang River Civilization, 213–45. Singapore: Springer, 2023. 2. Huang, Chunyan. “Shipbuilding Industry and Social Life in the Song Dynasty.” In A Panoramic View of the Song Dynasty Through the Lens of Shipbuilding Industry, 420–445. Singapore: Springer, 2024. 3. Zhao, Kui. “Ancient Salt Roads in Northern China.” In Ancient Salt Roads of China, 279. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2024.

(2) Transportation & State Intervention

The transportation of grains harvested in the South, as depicted in the scroll, was not incidental; it was backed by a well-organized transportation system managed by the Song Imperial state. As Huang (2024) underscores, this grain shipping system was state-sponsored and involved a bureaucratic process with the participation of approximately 190,000 individuals, contributing over 6 million Dan of grain each year across various regions of the Empire. After the harvests from the South, these grains were typically transported to warehouses in Zhenzhou and other cities near Kaifeng, before being shipped by boat to the capital. Additionally, the Bian River shown in the scroll was not the only river facilitating this transportation route. The Hand River, a connecting waterway, also served as a crucial channel for transporting tax grain northward to the capital, leading Song government authorities to propose the reconstruction of the ancient Jingnan Canal, which connected to the Han River (Ding 2023). Furthermore, state intervention during this period extended beyond just transportation projects; it included regulations on how transactions for southern goods should be conducted. For instance, Zhao (2024) highlights that in the capital city of Kaifeng, the Song Imperial government established a banknote system for the transaction of salt from Hedong Lake, a well-known lake in the southern province of Hunan. Under this system, merchants were required to first pay money to obtain banknotes from the state, which they then used to purchase salt before transporting it to state-designated sales areas in Kaifeng.

Talisman Man

Talismans could be found in many different forms, from paper to coins, mirrors, amulets, and many more (3). An example of what a talisman may look like is shown to the right. Note the seal in the center of the talisman. This is the way the practitioner is able to show that the sigil was made by them (4). The goal of talismans is generally to bring good fortune or protection to the holder, though there are other things they can be used for. In this circumstance, it is likely that the talisman is intended to bring good fortune to the holder and those around him. He could also be intending to bring the talisman to the grave of a loved one who passed, as cleaning the burial grounds of ancestors and giving sacrifices to ancestors are incredibly important parts of the festival (5).

1. Copp, Paul. "Chinese Religion in the Sui and Tang Dynasties." The Wiley‐Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. (2012): p. 96.
2. Chao, Shin‐Yi. "Chinese Religion in the Song and Alien Dynasties." The Wiley‐Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions. (2012): 99-124.
3. Fang, Alex, François, Thierry. “Chinese Charms and the Iconographic Language of Good Luck and Heavenly Protection.” The Language and Iconography of Chinese Charms Deciphering a Past Belief System. Edited by Chengyu Fang and François. Thierry. Singapore: Springer Singapore, 2016: p. 7.
4. Wen, Benenell. The Tao of Craft: Fu Talismans and Casting Sigils in the Eastern Esoteric Tradition. North Atlantic Books: September 27, 2016.
5. Xu, Xin and Shiyao Wang. "The Evolution of Intangible CH Digital Resources: The Case of the Qingming Festival." Library Trends 69, no. 1 (Summer, 2020): 201-222.

Throughout Chinese History, religion is vital to the way people live their lives. This is an example of a man Carrying a talisman. When block printing was created in the late Tang period, and popularized in the Song, talismans like the one seen carried by the man in this image were able to be spread throughout society. This made the spread of religion to the masses much easier than before, when individual talismans and other religious materials were very expensive and inaccessible(1). During this time, there were also many individual religious sects that were being created, as the accessibility of religion grew from just what the society officials required (2).

Eberhard, Wolfram. Chinese Festivals. New York: H. Schuman, 1952. Lakos, William. Chinese Ancestor Worship : A Practice and Ritual Oriented Approach to Understanding Chinese Culture. Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars Pub., 2010. Song, Li. Tomb-Sweeping Day. Reading: Paths International, Limited, 2015. Accessed November 28, 2024. ProQuest Ebook Central. Syme, Alison. Willow. 1st ed. Vol. 16. London: Reaktion Books, 2014. Yu, Hui. A City in a Scroll: Hidden Crisis in “Along the River During the Qingming Festival.” All About Chinese Culture : An Illustrated Story of China in 10 Cultural Relics. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. Zhang, Cong Ellen. Transformative Journeys: Travel and Culture in Song China. University of Hawai’i Press, 2011. http://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt6wqs4s.

Given that this scroll owes its name to qingming jie, or the tomb-sweeping festival, it is certainly worthwhile to learn the meaning behind the occasion and its ties to Chinese cultural history. This part of the scroll depicts servants or members of a family clearing the way for someone, and it is immediately in the next section of the scroll (included below) that a woman being carried in a sedan-chair and a man on horseback can be seen, presumably returning from their ancestral grave site. Rather than engaging in the worship of their ancestors from the comfort of a nearby temple, the pair have exemplified a particular trend of the Song Dynasty in their travel to the physical grave (Lakos, 26). Indeed, Song China saw an increase in travel both large-scale (cross-country) and small-scale (between towns, sightseeing trips), another factor to consider in the rise of grave-site visits for occasions such as qingming jie (Zhang, 33-38). Additionally, travel to the grave-site indicates a greater devotion to one’s ancestors—deeply rooted in Confucian ideals of filial piety—and allows for the basic customs of the holiday: sweeping the tomb, giving offerings, etc. (Song, 66). The pair’s attention to the festival’s customs is made all the more evident in the presence of willow twigs, which adorn the woman’s sedan chair. More than mere decorations, the twigs symbolize mourning and the repelling of evil spirits, also being used to sweep the graves themselves (Syme, 37-38). These practices of tomb-sweeping, leaving offerings, demonstrating devotion to one’s ancestors, and visiting the physical grave-site not only illustrate the significance of qingming jie, but also the observance of the holiday during the Song Dynasty, in particular (Eberhard, 51-53). As an additional note, while the men running ahead of the returning mourners can be interpreted as clearing the way, it is also likely that they are trying to catch a startled horse, which may cause commotion and perhaps even carnage in the streets of the town. Hui Yu argues that this scene is one of the scroll’s artist’s many ways of pointing to underlying troubles which plagued the towns of Song China (Yu).

During the Song dynasty and throughout Chinese history, horses played vital roles in everyday life, contributing to the dynasty's economic prosperity through transportation, entertainment, and trade. Given the saddle on this particular horse and its placement in an urban area, it was certainly used for transportation purposes. Horses were especially necessary for transport on the Silk Road routes, which included a large network of trading posts and markets designed to facilitate the transport and exchange of goods (Peters 955). As a result of this intricate system which relied heavily on horses, regions benefited from organized trade policy and the spread of ideas, cultures, and technology (Peters 955). In addition to their transportation purpose, horses served as a medium of exchange. China often traded silk and grains for horses from other regions in Central Asia, particularly the Mongolian steppes and the Tibetan plateau (Chin-Wai 23). International trade relations strengthened by the Silk Road were particularly beneficial for China’s procurement of war horses. Despite enormous investments, Chinese dynasties often failed to breed horses domestically (Roel 12). Heavy reliance on other nations (such as Turkic tribes from the Mongolian steppe and the Tibetans) contributed to the horse’s reputation as a “vulnerable political entity,” because the Song’s struggle to supply their own horses threatened the economic and military stability of the dynasty (Meserve 285). Volatile relationships with other regions, notably Tibet, meant the supply of battle-worthy horses was insecure. The Tea and Horse Agency, which was created for the procurement of Tibetan war horses for tea, sometimes endured problems in acquiring quality stock. Especially during times of conflict with the Tibetans, China received poor-quality, undersized, aged horses in exchange for goods such as tea, silk, silver, and salt (Meserve 291). The unpredictable nature of these exchanges was dangerous considering China’s dire need for quality horses, as China was constantly threatened by mounted nomadic warriors from northern and western borders (Meserve 282). Aware of this weakness, the Song dynasty “invested heavily in the development of new fencing and horse breeding methods in the south” in an attempt to achieve independence from foreign supply and assert themselves as a stronger military power (Roel 13). This meant the government dedicated large portions of land–which could have otherwise been used for agriculture–to pasture the army’s horses (Creel 662). Given China’s agricultural-based society, this practice was attacked because it removed land from farming and interfered with the livelihood of the people. While it required about fifty mou of pasturage land for the government to maintain one horse, fifty mou was enough for the agricultural use of three farmers and their families (Chin-Wai 35). It became clear that using fertile lands for pastures was uneconomical and burdensome. Furthermore, this practice was very unsuccessful in achieving its goal of procuring battle-worthy horses (688). The horses that the Song did produce in regions such as Huainan, Fujian, Hunan, and Lingnan, were considered “too small and fragile to be used in battles” (Chin-Wai 24). There was little the Song government could do to breed its own stock of battle-worthy horses, largely due to geographical constraints. Generally speaking, the most conducive natural environments for pasturing horses were places where “fresh grasses were plentiful and the weather was dry and cool” (Zhang 95). However, many of these territories were located to the north, occupied by the Liao, or under threat of invasion (Zhang 96). Due to competing economic interests and ineffectiveness, the Song empire abolished most of the imperial pasturages. Throughout most of the Northern Song period, the government obtained most of its foreign horses from Tufan and Sichuan (Chin-Wai 24). Aside from their military significance horses also served as a symbol of social status and prestige. As you can see, the rest of the scroll is dominated by mules and donkeys with far fewer horses. This is, in part, because the population of mules and donkeys surpassed the population of horses in the Song dynasty (Creel 660). Because breeding mules and donkeys was a far less economically demanding task, the Song dynasty didn’t need to rely on foreign supply (Sterckx 54). The comparative shortage of horses could also be attributed to the high costs and challenges associated with breeding and maintaining them. Horses were more susceptible to diseases and needed more intensive care, making them more of a financial burden and less of a practical choice for the general population (Sterckx 57). As a result, owning a horse became a symbol of wealth and prestige reserved for the elite who could afford their upkeep.

Sources:

1. Agyekum, Ivy K.. “‘Commercial Revolution’ in the Song Dynasty.” Journal of Literature and Art Studies 9, no. 10 (2019). 2. Huang, Chunyan. “Ships and Livelihoods of Southern Inhabitants in the Song Dynasty.” Frontiers of History in China 19, no. 1 (2024): 66-82.

(3) Labor Activities & Relationships

The Song dynasty’s complex transportation and trade system linking its capital and the southern provinces relied heavily on the involvement of local laborers. As vividly depicted in the scroll, the various commercial transactions generated manifold job opportunities for the residents of Kaifeng. Merchants throughout the Empire hired these local workers to transport and carry goods to various locations around the capital. According to another source by Huang (2024), these interactions between merchants and residents can be described as interdependent. On one hand, the commercial success of the merchants depended on the labor provided by local workers. On the other hand, residents in the capital heavily relied on the agricultural products sold by these merchants. For example, delays in rice boat transportation during that time could cause rice prices to skyrocket or even lead to food shortages in Kaifeng. Equally important to note is that the thriving commercial activities of the time were made possible by the political stability of the Northern Song Empire. Agyekum (2019) emphasizes that, alongside a robust transportation system, the Song policy of replacing military personnel with civilians in the bureaucratic system fostered economic development—allowing for the efficient exchange of products from various regions and the creation of job opportunities in the capital.

Source:

1. Jiang, Xidong. “The Productivity Level of the Song Dynasty.” Social Sciences in China 44, no. 2 (2023): 74–93.

(1) Origin of Grain

Numerous stacks of sacks are ubiquitous next to the boats in the scroll, waiting for handlers to carry them to different parts of the city. The items stored in these sacks were presumably grains harvested from the southern regions of the Song Empire, particularly from cities connected by the Yangtze River. In addition to the natural environment suitable for rice and wheat production, Jiang (2023) highlights the Song dynasty’s advanced technological innovations and effective management practices that contributed to the region’s fertile agricultural yields. Specifically, the selective improvement of rice strains and significant technological progress in land reclamation enabled these southern provinces to be more intensively cultivated for agricultural production. These comparative advantages of the South consequently created a dependent relationship between the northern capital of Kaifeng and the southern cities, where the transportation of goods between these two areas played a vital role during the Northern Song dynasty.

Commercial & Transportation Activities

This selected section is part of a larger scroll that depicts the commercial and labor activities in the capital of the Northern Song dynasty, Kaifeng. Along the Bian River, numerous wooden boats are docked, connected by a pontoon bridge that leads to the bustling market. After successfully unloading bags of goods from the boats, workers receive instructions from their employer or manager to transport the items to various locations throughout the city. This distinct illustration serves as an excellent starting point for examining the socio-economic system of the Song Empire, prompting us to consider several questions: (1) Where did these commodities originate? (2) How did the merchants and the Song imperial state facilitate the transportation of these goods? (3) What did these commercial activities reveal about their impact on civilians’ quotidian lives and their relationships with one another?

Link to biblography

The Song period was a huge proponent of foreign trade. They recognized the importance of maritime trade and it became a big part of their economy. The leaders of the time lessened restrictions, first with encouraging trade within the larger state and second, let traders trade internationally. This allowed the state to tax all of the goods coming in and was used as revenue. Many speculate why the image does not include foreigners, as the city was a diverse city with merchants from all over. The theory is that the Scroll was created before the year 1104. 1104 is significant because before that year, it was illegal for maritime merchants to settle and sell goods. Merchants often had a limit on their stay in the city. The ships that are seen in the Scroll could be coming from foreign countries, but the likelihood is low due to when the Scroll was created. However, due to the boom in international trade in that time period, ships could have been coming from far away. One example of foreign trade was ceramic trading. In different cities in China, their ports were being used by ceramic makers. In the Song period, the technique of porcelain making was cemented and interest in it increased. Specifically, Chinese porcelain was wanted more overseas. While the likelihood of porcelain being on the boats in the Qīngmíng Scroll is pretty low, boats around China were sending it overseas from ports.

There was huge population growth before and during the Song period and new agricultural technologies that led to increased agricultural production. Rice was one of the biggest products coming into the city. Rivers were bringing goods in and out of the city. The main commodity being brought was grains, most likely rice from Southern China. In Pee 2010, they bring up a primary source by Yang Kan, who boasts about the unprecedented amount of grain within the capital. Along with great amounts of grain, Yang Kan also brags about several other commodities that are flourishing around the city including silk and other agricultural products. This proves the intricacy of trade routes by water in order to get products to the city from far and near. At the same time, a big amount of the rice was, for example, being traded to southwest Asia by boat out of the city as well. “During the Northern Song, large quantities of rice were shipped from south to north China” (Golas 1980, 299). Rice, tea, salt and other mass produced products began being traded longer distances than had been seen before.

Ports and docks were incredibly important to the trade of goods for China. As seen in Scroll 4, much was happening around the river. The events happening in the Qīngmíng Scroll are most likely related to state trade, however, foreign trade was also very common during the later part of the Song Period.

Local and Within State Trade

Foreign Trade

Trade and Ports in Song China