HIST 250 Scroll 1 Fall 2024

衣 - Clothes

儒 - Scholar

射箭 - Archery

駝 - Camels

井 - Wells

Archery has always been an important part of Chinese culture, and the Song Dynasty was no exception. Bow archery had strong cultural connections as a remembrance of Confucius and Mencius, who had both practiced archery and used it as an analogy for virtue (Lorge 126). For Confucius, archery was less about being accurate, but rather a way to display self-cultivation and pursue inner development. Zhu Xi, a neo-Confuscianist, elaborated on this sentiment, as he suggested that virtue could be displayed in archery by examining the behavior exhibited rather than the “success” that one achieves within an archery contest (Lorge 126). Beyond its connections to Confucianism, archery developed within the entertainment sphere of Song society. Various martial arts, including archery, were performed to entertain audiences as the flourishing merchant culture resulted in economic growth, allowing more people to pursue entertainment (Lorge 132). Furthermore, archery began to be used as a form of fitness and recreation within urban areas, as specialized venues were built to accommodate the growing demand (Hong and Huang 107). Urban people who practiced archery recreationally often joined martial arts societies in their leisure time, and these societies were oriented towards performance and entertainment (Hong and Huang 120). However, urban martial arts societies differed greatly from rural martial arts societies in their focus and purpose within their communities. The Archery Society, a rural martial arts society, was formed to practice martial arts for self-defense, to protect against invasion, and to launch large-scale peasant uprisings (Hong and Huang 119). The general practice of rural archery societies was to practice martial arts while they continued farming and only acted in disputes that directly involved their communities. The cultural and practical purposes of archery in rural areas more closely resembled those of other surrounding nomadic polities than those of urban archery societies. Works Cited: Huang, Fuhua, Fan Hong. “Martial Arts in the Song Dynasty (960–1279).” In A History of Chinese Martial Arts, 1st ed., 1:107–25. ABINGDON: Routledge, 2019. Lorge, Peter Allan. Chinese Martial Arts : From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century. 1st ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012. Ma, Mingda. “Banquet Archery at Yujinyuan Garden in the Song Dynasty.” In Chinese Archery Studies, 119–33. Singapore: Springer Nature Singapore, 2023. Selby, Stephen. Chinese Archery. 1st ed. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 2000. Smith, Paul Jakov. “‘Shuihu Zhuan’ and the Military Subculture of the Northern Song, 960-1127.” Harvard Journal of Asiatic Studies 66, no. 2 (2006): 363–422. https://doi.org/10.2307/25066819. Wright, David Curtis. From War to Diplomatic Parity in Eleventh-Century China : Sung’s Foreign Relations with Kitan Liao. Leiden ; Brill, 2005. Wright, David Curtis. “Nomadic Power, Sedentary Security, and the Crossbow.” Acta Orientalia Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae 58, no. 1 (2005): 15–31.

Archery in the Song

Archery has been an important part of Chinese culture for much of its history, and this cultural significance continued throughout the Song Dynasty. Remains of composite bows dating back to the late Stone Age have been found, and archery is the subject of some of China’s earliest folklore, including the legend of Archer Yi (Selby 4). The role of archery in the Song Dynasty adapted to match the changing values of Song society, but archery continued to hold military and cultural significance. During its time in power, the Song Dynasty experienced a rise in the professional bureaucratic class with increasing numbers of people who were highly educated and had taken the civil service exam (Lorge 118). As a result, physical skills and the practice of martial arts, including archery, were devalued in favor of the status given to civil elites. While the literati elite limited their practice of archery, it remained a paramount skill and practice for much of the Song Dynasty (Lorge 121). Bows and crossbows remained two of the most important weapons used by the Song armies. As distance weapons, they were commonly used as defensive and ambush weapons (Wright 23). Due to the surrounding steppe polities, the Song continued to support a military subculture based on archery that was commonly used as a deterrent against nomadic invasions (Wright 27). It was not until the Ming Dynasty that a demilitarized society with a strong civil orientation emerged within China (Smith 415). Although the civil elites of the Song Dynasty diminished their practice of martial arts and archery, archery continued to play an important role in diplomatic relations between the Song and the polities surrounding them. For example, archery banquets were commonly held events between Song embassies who traveled to Liao territory. The purpose of these banquets was to create a friendly rivalry and ease tension between the two societies in a diplomatic context (Wright 129). Both parties used the opportunity to showcase their martial prowess while building relations and engaging in cultural exchange (Ma 119). These banquets were an important occasion for gift-giving, and these gifts included archery bows, clothing, horses, and silks (Wright 129).

In their rapid expansion of wells, the Song faced a myriad of pressures. Beneficial was the high water table in coastal areas, which meant wells could be constructed with less effort. However, inland the Song faced a low water table, meaning inland cities needed more work. Moreover, the Song faced five major droughts that, while not particularly harmful to the water table, did necessitate the growth of wells for both potable and occasional irrigation use. The pressures, however, were outstripped by their well building efforts.Socially the wells of the Song dynasty changed little in the cities. Wells had existed for too long to be revolutionary, and the marketplace had already left their bounds. Minor changes did occur, the Song introduced government built wells exclusively for merchants to draw from and sell, but this may have only occurred at West Lake. In bureaucracy, however, the social changes from wells were vast. At the beginning of the dynasty water management was a position of low esteem, long stripped of its multiple departments of the Tang, and the Confucian virtue a mere afterthought. But as the construction of wells vaulted, especially as the massive West Lake project came to fruition, water management became an important part of the government. New bureaus were established, and as the importance of wells grew to match the population, the bureaucratics in charge soon gained much laudation and administrative power. As a final note, the wells of the Song were not constrained to water. The time also saw the proliferation, and improvement, of salt-brine wells and tianches. The process of extracting salt from brine drawn by wells dates to the Han Dynasty and reached its zenith in the Qing. A borehole is made at a smaller diameter than the traditional well and atop the hole is constructed a wooden derrick, a tianche, to aid the pumping of the brine by extending the bamboo pipes upwards, allowing greater pressure to build. In the Song dynasty these tianches were small, but present and salt wells were a less critical, but still noteworthy part of the wells at the time. Zeng, Hongyun, Xinghong Qu, Hongxue Zeng, Jing Cheng, Yunqiang Zhu, and Li Peng. “Spatiotemporal Characteristics of the Ancient Water Wells for the Past 3,000a in Zhejiang Province, China: A Perspective of Geography.” Annals of GIS 29, no. 2 (2023): 307–18. https://doi.org/10.1080/19475683.2023.2166582.

Wells in the Song

By the Song dynasty wells had existed in China for 7500 years. The early forms of shallow, earthen pools fed by rain or springs had long been waylaid, replaced by stone, brick, wood, or tile shafts bored deep into the earth in pursuit of groundwater. Above the ground form had also changed, the elevated roofs from which the word for well, jing 井, derived its pictorial octothorpe replaced by stone wellheads topped by wooden structure at times adorned with geared systems to raise and lower buckets. Nor, in urban areas, was the well still the centerpiece of the town. In their genesis, as villages moved away from rivers, the sole well of a town formed the linchpin of a community. The classical word for marketplace, shi jing meaning “market” and “well” reflected this centrality as markets developed as people hawked their wares around the well inhabitants must visit with regularity. By the Song the well was still central, but now dozens adorend a city and the marketplace had long stretched beyond the bounds of the space around a well. However, the centrality of the well still occupied the Song in other manners. Their bureacracts turned to a spatial centralism of wells in an effort to stymie economic shortcomings. The method bore the name “well-field,” a process wherein the octothorpe of jing was applied to land distribution, with the central square containing a well for the eight outlying squares to share in. By the Song the “well-field” dated over a millennium, but in concept it had been maintained through its position as a Confucian dogma following Mencius’ laudation of the effort. The bureaucrats would ultimately not adopt the “well-field” grid to redraw the land, but the Song nonetheless invested heavily in wells. Much of the groundwork belonged to the previous Tang, who had bureaucratized water management through government departments and invested heavily in water systems of scattered wells, reservoirs, and ditches. But, the Song still had much work to do. Their population grew rapidly, necessitating their rapid construction of more wells to feed their burgeoning cities. In these wells they were at first non-innovative, being reliant on the knowledge of Buddhist monks to construct advanced forms, but as they progressed they did make minor innovations, most notably in terms of new filtration derived from special tiles rather than bamboo.

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Confucain scholars played an important role in the Song dynasty shaping their society, government, and culture. Their influence extended to the people as they became cultural leaders and moral examples of how to act in society. Additionally their roles in government contributed to education among the people. They influenced cultural practices by living life through Confucian principles. These Confucian scholars were determined to keep Confucian principles a central aspect in society. One of the most important ways Confucian scholars influenced society was through their role in government. They were able to implement this by the civil service examination which provided a way for these Confucian scholars to enter government service. The purpose of this test was for scholars to be able to apply their knowledge of Confucian texts and Confucian principles for real problems. This system made it easier for the government to recruit individuals with intelligent and good moral values for what was considered extremely important. The Song dynasty relied heavily on a merit based system for the scholars. The Confucian scholars in the government were responsible for planning policies that reflected Confucian principles. They were able to influence the military as they believed they were essential for keeping peace. Even though there was much interest in specialized knowledge such as agriculture practices and medicine and sometimes still tied into Confucian principles. Some of these principles they needed to have were benevolence, righteousness, justice, good morals, etc. Their presence in government helped keep Confucianism at the center of their well ordered and morally good society. Confucian scholars helped shape traditional society norms to bring unity and good morals to many individuals. Relationships are a central part of Confucian values such as respecting elders and family. The way scholars upheld these values was by teaching and leading by example to promote others to follow. They also reinforced the peoples roles in society and even gender roles between men and women in this period. As scholars were seen as moral examples, they were expected to live with many virtues demonstrating the Confucian principles. The impact Confucian scholars had on culture was also demonstrated through their art and education. They helped establish many schools that were filled with educational materials that focused on many Confucian principles. The scholars also impacted their culture with poetry and art, with the work often reflecting Confucian principles. In the Song dynasty many scholars would sometimes inscribe their poetry in their artworks such as paintings. Their artworks help display the scholar's talents and also support the moral and virtues of Confucianism. An important part of their influence was their role in connecting the government with the community. Confucian scholars served from advisors to being community leaders who helped implement policies while addressing the concerns of the people. It helped maintain society as it ensured that the government is working with the people's needs. Their presence in the community showed their ability to keep their morals within the government, making them crucial to their government and community. Confucian scholars were the backbone of the Song dynasty. Their roles in government, education, and culture helped the evolution of Confucian principles. They helped in shaping government through Confucian principles, educating the future generations, and being the example of a morally virtuous individual. Their legacy in society is defined in all of these themes and is an immense feature of China’s and the Song dynasty history.

Confucian Scholars in the Song Dynasty

Clothing of the Song Dynasty

[Something about climate in China? Building off of the part in the beginning of the clothing chapter in daily life… where Gernet mentions the utility of clothing for keeping people warm, and claims that there was little to no heating in homes, and coal was expensive] At the beginning of the Song dynasty, many of the clothing conventions carried over from it’s predecessor, the Tang (_-_). Followed many clothing conventions of the Tang, but shifted somewhat [what the tang ideas were that carried over] “Simple and elegant”, due to neo confucianism Very similar to Tang at first, then shifted as ideas did Difference in rank communicated through clothing Most regulated was government officials different colors for different rank Common people: Materials used to make clothing

The Northern and Southern Song dynasties experienced great economic prosperity. Due to the excess wealth, shopping areas in the capital city of Northern Song, Kaifeng, as depicted in the Qing Ming Scroll, developed rapidly. Staple developments of these shopping areas featured teahouses, markets, and entertainment areas around every corner. With the increased amounts of leisure time and networks of economic growth, there was a growing market for the entertainment industry that reached beyond the upper class. Shopping areas included members of many different classes ranging from lower merchants to upper-class patrons and the street performances were one of the places of intermingling among people. Common forms of entertainment often involved a performance at the street level making this medium accessible to people of many classes, unlike the tea houses which featured strict upholding of social norms. Major genres of street performances include storytelling and shadow puppetry that regaled tales of the Buddha, criticisms of the government, or folklore. In this segment of the scroll an entertainer of some kind can be seen performing to a group of many different individuals: including children, monks, scholars, and common people. Pee, Christian de. “Purchase on Power: Imperial Space and Commercial Space in Song-Dynasty Kaifeng, 960-1127.” Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 53, no. 1/2 (2010): 149–84. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25651215. Gernet, Jacques. “Dailey Life in China on the Eve of the Mongol Invasian.” Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1970. Schaab-Hanke, Dorothee. “The Capital Behind the Capital: Life in Kaifeng as Reflected in the ‘Duchengjisheng.’” Oriens Extremus 50 (2011): 193–207. http://www.jstor.org/stable/24047695.

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Camels and Overland Foreign Trade in Song China

This section of the scroll depicts a two-humped bactrian camel, a species well adapted to the “cold deserts” of central Asia, and one that was used extensively as a beast of burden by nomadic traders along what is known today as the Silk Road trade network. Camels have a number of biological features that made them ideal for use by traders, including losing water at a slower rate than other mammals, the ability to lose more water than other mammals, and the ability to drink from saline water sources that other mammals cannot. Additionally, they can carry far heavier loads than horses or donkeys, making them ideal for traders traveling long distances with heavy wares. The camels in the scroll can clearly be seen with large packs on their back, attesting to this quality. However, despite camels being very well suited for overland trade, it took a considerable amount of time for them to catch on as the main source of transportation on the Silk Road. During the Tang dynasty, oxen provided a majority of overland transport, with Li Guangli using 100,000 of them during his second expedition to Ferghana. This began to change during the Song dynasty. At this time, the Liao kingdom “received considerable tribute of camels,” which greatly increased the numbers of the animals in eastern China. Kenneth Chan argues that the Song pursued a “liberal foreign trade policy,” which included large amounts of overland trade from the Silk Road network during the early decades of the dynasty, meaning the Song would have been allowing more camels into China than ever before. This means that the camels on the scroll would have represented an exciting new development for the people of the city. In general, Camels were incredibly important to trade the economy of the Song dynasty, and were considered to be valuable investments. The Turfan Uyghur Khaganate had extensive trade relations with the Song dynasty, and would often take out ‘insurance’ contracts on camels during trade expeditions. Camel owners would rent out their beasts for these trade runs, and would demand payment if their camel died in the journey or was stolen. Additionally, camels themselves were also given as gifts and traded as goods. This means that the camels in the scroll may be from a foreign trader, or they could be the property of a local merchant. Camels were not just tools used by Silk Road traders, but were integral parts of the Silk Road economy. An enlightening example of Silk Road trade to China is the many trade envoys that the Qarakhanid Dynasty sent to Song. The Qarakhanids were a Turko-Islamic kingdom that ruled much of central Asia during the period of the Song Dynasty, and they seemed very interested in expanding trade relations with China. They sent “thirty or forty missions” to the Song, which included camels, jade-decorated saddles and bridles, precious stones, and spices. These goods were given to the Song Emperor as gifts, but were also meant to show “what the merchants took with them as trade goods” to encourage more trade. On the part of the Song, they were not overly receptive to the Qarakhanid trade expeditions, as they never sent any envoys back. The Qarakhanid people were recorded by the Song as “fan 蕃,” or “barbarians,” and it can be inferred that although the Song were happy with allowing foreign trade to come into their country, they did not want to expend the effort to send traders back. Any one of these complex dynamics might apply to the camels in this scroll, which can be seen to symbolize the intricacies of foreign overland trade during the Song Dynasty. Adshead, S. A. M. China in World History, 3rd ed. New York: Palgrave, 2000. Brauer, Ralph. “The Camel and Its Role in Shaping Mideastern Nomad Societies,” Comparative Civilizations Review 28, no. 28 (Spring 1993), 106-151 Chan, Kenneth S. “Foreign Trade, Commercial Policies and the Political Economy of the Song and Ming Dynasties of China.” Australian Economic History Review 48, no. 1 (March 2008), 68-90. Duturaeva, Dilnoza. “Qarakhanid Envoys to Song China,” Journal of Asian History 52, no. 2 (2018), pp. 179-208 Hansen, Valerie. “The Impact of the Silk Road Trade on a Local Community: The Turfan Oasis, 500-800.” Les Sogdiens en Chine 17 (2005), 283-310 Hansen, Valerie. The Silk Road: A New History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2015.