OB

Organizational Behaviour

Chapters 1-8

Chapter 1:

What Is Organizational Behaviour?

Chapter 2:

Perception, Personality, and Emotions

Chapter 3:

Values, Attitudes, and Diversity in theWorkplace

Chapter 4:

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Chapters 9-

Chapter 9:

Conflict and Negotiation

Chapter 10:

Organizational Culture

Chapter 14:

Organizational Change

Chapter 4:

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Chapter 11

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Chapter 12

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Psychology

Anthropology

Sociology

Social psychology

Chapter 9

Define “organization”An organization is a consciously coordinated social unit composed of people, functioning on a relatively continuous basis to achieve a common goal or set of goals What is OB? OB is a field of study that looks at the impact that individuals, groups, and structure have on human behaviour within organizations The idea here is to apply this knowledge towards improving organizational effectiveness. OB is a behavioural science with foundations in:Each of these elements contributes differently to form the OB field.

Why should you study OB?

Understanding peoples’ attitudes and behaviours can have positive impacts at work Money and pay isn’t always everything We can’t just throw money at employees and expect them to work harder! Volunteers aren’t paid, and yet, they work… Relationships amongst employees tend to be related to workplace attitudes and behaviours The relationship with a supervisor is very important to workplace outcomes Productivity, job satisfaction, employee retention…

Field studies

Case studies

Meta-analyses

Laboratory studies

Surveys

Evidence-based field

Research methodsOB tends to favour five research methods to develop knowledge: How do you know if a certain workplace policy is achieving it’s goal? → Carrying out project evaluation using OB concepts and strategies How can the organization ensure that their anti-discrimination initiatives are actually working? → Perform a qualitative case study that explores the perceptions of the concerned population Employee attraction and retention are serious pervasive issues across Europe and North America; how can organizations truly understand whether increasing salaries will lead to better retention? → Quantitative study to asses the effects of increased salary on different retention indicators

It depends

What are we looking for?- Consistencies - ContextThere are certain fundamental consistencies that underlie the behaviour of most people Behaviour is NOT random These consistencies allow for predictability

Basic OB Model

A very basic OB model includes the following: Inputs, Processes and OutcomesReality can be simplified with drawings.

The Perceiver

The Situation

The Target

Chapter 2

What is perception The process by which individuals organize and interpret their impressions to give meaning to their environment What influences perception? The perceiver, the target and the situation all come together to influence an individual’s perception.

Distortions:Fundamental Attribution Error The tendency to underestimate external factors and overestimate internal factors when making judgments about others’ behaviour. Self-Serving Bias The tendency to attribute one’s successes to internal factors while putting the blame for failures on external factors.

Internally

Externally

Why do we have those perceptions?

Attribution theory Tries to explain the ways we judge others; the meaning we give to a behaviour. When something seems atypical, we try to make sense of it. This is done: orDetermination caused by: 1. Distinctiveness2. Consensus3. Consistency

Selective Perception: People selectively interpret what they see based on their interests, background, experience, and attitudes.Halo Effect: Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a single characteristic, such as intelligence, likeability, or appearance.Contrast Effects: Drawing a general impression about an individual based on a comparative assesmentProjection: Attributing one’s own characteristics to other people.Stereotype: Judging someone on the basis of your perception of the group to which that person belongs.Prejudice: An unfounded dislike of a person or group based on their belonging to a particular stereotyped group.Workplace discrimination: If a tree falls and nobody is around to hear it, does it make a sound?

Perceptual Errors

Self fulfilling prophecy A concept that proposes a person will behave in ways consistent with how he or she is perceived by others.

Pygmalion Effect

An individual’s personality can have an impact on the workplace Imagine a very introverted person working sales… …or a highly extroverted one working alone in a lab!

What is personality?The stable patterns of behaviour and consistent internal states that determine how an individual reacts and interacts with others. Determinates of personality Hereditary, Environmental, Situational. How can we assess personality? Personality traits:

MBTI

The Big Five

Personality

Machiavellianism The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means.NarcissismThe tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement.PsychopathyThe tendency for a lack of concern for others and a lack of guilt or remorse when one’s actions cause harm.

The Dark Triad

Core self-evaluationThe degree to which an individual: likes or dislikes himself or herself, sees himself or herself as capable and effective, feels in control of his or her environment or powerless over the environment.Self-MonitoringA personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust behaviour to external, situational factors.Proactive PersonalityA person who identifies opportunities, shows initiative, takes action, and perseveres until meaningful change occurs.

Other personality attributes

Affect A broad range of feelings that people experience. Emotions Intense feelings that are directed at someone or something. Moods Feelings that tend to be less intense than emotions and that lack a contextual stimulus.Affect, emotion and mood have profound impacts at the workplace Linked to many other factors that can have positive or negative impacts at work (organizational commitment, job satisfaction, retention, deviance etc…) Regulating and managing emotion is critical for a good workplace. Imagine going to work happy, vibrant and motivated only to meet with a grumpy, frustrated, unpleasant colleague…how would that affect your perception of work?

Affect, emotions, and moods

What is Emotional Intelligence (EI)? The ability to detect and to manage emotional cues and information.Is it important?Some say yes, others say no. It is a controversial subject in OB. Lets take a look at some arguments

Emotional Intelligence

Chapter 3

DiversityDiversity is often thought of as simply having a range of cultural and ethnic backgrounds; this is an oversimplification. Two general types of diversity- Demographical diversity (inborn or natural): Diversity of personal characteristics. Observable. Surface-level-Functional/ability diversity (Job related): An individual’s acquired task-relevant attributes. Not easily measured. Deep-levelHow does diversity “work” Traditionally, diversity research has been founded on theories of intergroup relations; from this standpoint, Social Identity theory (SIT) and social categorization theories focus on the cognitive processes that explain the way that people make sense of their environments.

Social categorization theory

Similarity-attraction theory

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

Diversity theories

Cultural Intelligence One’s ability to understand someone’s unfamiliar behaviour in the same way as would people from their own culture. Helpful for expatriate assignments

Why do people discriminate against one another?Discrimination is often conceptualized as the differential treatment based on membership to a certain groupEffective programs Respect legal frameworks for equal employment opportunities Encourage fair treatment of all people Effective managers Understand how a diverse workforce will better serve diverse clients Think about public-facing jobs Implement practices to bring out the skills and abilities of all workers Recruiting, staffing, team creating etc…

Diversity and discrimination

Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite mode of conduct or end-state of existence.How can we measure them? Evaluating differences in culture: GLOBE Time

Hodgson’s General Moral Principles

Hofstede’s value dimensions

Rokeach Value survey (RVS)

Values

Session 3 Processes Theories

Adams (1965)

Vroom (1964)

Blau (1964)

Social Exchange Theory

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory

Chapter 9

The Psychological ContractPsychological contract theory is characterised by an individual’s beliefs concerning the terms and conditions of a reciprocal exchange between themselves and another party Rousseau (1989,1990) These beliefs are often unique to the individual (idiosyncratic) (Perception)PCT is founded on other well-established theories (Foundational Theories).

Social Exchange Theory

Considered one of the most influential theories in OB.SET considers relationships to be a series of transactions, or exchanges. These transactions/exchanges can be between individuals and groups.

Social Exchange Theory

The resources exchanged are both social and material/economic These exchanges are a central human interaction Pure altruism doesn't exist because you feel good when giving away to others.

Advantages

Reciprocal loops

Social Exchange Theory

A spectrum: We can approach SET relationships as being on a spectrumExchanges create reciprocity. Exchanges create “debt” and this “debt” must be repaid (there are mitigating circumstances and nuances)

Psychological contracts are often either unilateral or bilateral We usually approach it through a unilateral perspective (from the perspective of the employee only) Also on a spectrum The balanced approach is where organizations become the most effective

Forming a PC

The Psychological Contract

Violations not necessarily come right after a breach.Breach and violation will result in negative workplace attitudes.Morrison and Robinson (1997) were the first to explain breach and violation as two separate concepts.

(if promises are not broken, a high quality relationship will ensue)

When an expectation is perceived to be unmet, or a promise is perceived to be broken, 2 things happen: a breach and a violation.

Breach

Violation

Breaking promises

A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has negatively affected or is about to negatively affect something that the first party cares about. Not all conflicts are the same, there are different types.

Conflict

Intragroup

Intergroup

Dyadic

Conflicts vary in scale.

Loci of conflict

The Good, The Bad, and the Ugly Bacal categories conflict in a similar way as most traditional literature, but he also adds an “Ugly” category. The concepts introduce some nuance to how we conceptualize and approach organizational conflict

Conflict, according to Bacal

1. Communication
2. Structure
3. Personal Variables

Sources of conflict

1. Non-action
2. Administrative Orbiting
3. Secrecy
4. Law and Order

Managing Ugly (or how NOT to manage it)What conditions create ugly?

Conflict, according to Bacal

This theory considers how cooperative and assertive one is when handling conflict.There are five strategies proposed.

1. Forcing
2. Problem solving
3. Compromising
4. Avoiding
5. Yielding

Conflict resolution: Dual concern theory

There are three desired outcomes from functional conflict.

Agreement

Learning

Stronger relationships

Desired outcomes for conflict

What about personality/relationship conflict? We all have had conflicts with another person. What can we do to handle them? Communicate directly and emphasize conflict solving. Bringing up common objectives is important, and not attacking the other Don’t pull other people into the conflict… Seek help from a supervisor, or a professional mediator

Conflict resolution

Refers to a system of shared meaning held by members that distinguishes the organization from other organizations.The essence of an organization’s culture can be represented/captured by seven characteristics:

Organizational Culture

"Culture is the soul of the organization—the beliefs and values, and how they are manifested. I think of the structure as the skeleton, and as the flesh and blood. And culture is the soul that holds the thing together and gives it life force” -Henry Mintzberg

What is Culture?

Artifacts Aspects of an organization’s culture that you see, hear, and feel (tangible)Beliefs The understandings of how objects and ideas relate to each other Values The stable, long-lasting beliefs about what is important Assumptions The taken-for-granted notions of how something should be

Levels of culture

Difficult to establish in decentralized and virtual organizations, yet it does exist! Gaming communities have culture, for example.

Defines boundaries Creates distinctions between one organization and others Creates a sense of identity Fosters commitment Helps create commitment to something larger than an individual Enhances stability A social glue that helps keep the organization together by providing standards for what members should say or do. Control Helps guide and shape the attitudes and behaviours of members; it helps them make sense of the organization

What does culture do?

Culture creates climate: Organizational climate is how organizational culture is experienced (it is the outcome of culture)Organizational climate The shared perceptions organizational members have about their organization and work environment. Team spirit

Organizational climate

Who cares about ethics?

Ethics = control?

Organizational cultures are not ethically neutral! Ethical work climate (EWC) The shared concept of right and wrong behaviour in the workplace that develops over time.Reflects the true values of the organization and shapes the ethical decision-making of its members.How does it shape behaviour?

What about ethics?

Exam question

Subcultures

Dominant culture

Organizational culture represents a perception of the organization that employees hold in common. But an organization tends to have subcultures within it.Cultural Uniformity Corporations have multiple offices, and despite being the same superordinate organization, different branches tend to have different cultures. The Office

Cultural uniformity

Strong culture A culture in which the core values are intensely held and widely shared. Example: DisneyWhere customers are "guests", a job is a "part" and a uniform is a "costume”.Weak culture Core values are poorly defined, communicated or accepted.Example: ??? Organizations where turnover is high and poorly managed…

Cultural strength

Exam question

Creating / Maintainingorganizational culture

Change Shared values clash with those required to further the organization’s effectiveness Diversity A paradox Hiring those who are different tends to be enigmatic when new hires are formed to conform with the organization’s values… Mergers & acquisitions Un-successful M&As tend to be due to severe clashes in organizational culturesDysfunctional culture also if subcultures are clashing. Sometimes culture can be a barrier to certain actions outcomes

Antecedents of a dysfunctional culture

Organizational culture tends to change when…A dramatic crisis Turnover in leadership Young and small organizations (can change its culture quickly because it has fewer elements to change)Weak culture

What about changing cultures?

Organizational culture isn't neutral, it can be positive or negative.

1. Be a visible role model: setting the example for ethical behaviour
2. Communicate expectations: minimize ambiguities
3. Provide ethics training: address potential dilemmas
4. Reward positive acts and discipline negative ones: follow through with the organization’s policies
5. Provide protective mechanisms: whistleblowing policies, ombudsmen (impartial body) etc…
6. Build on employee strengths: will help them actualize and perform
7. Reward more than punish: simple praise goes a long way!
8. Emphasize growth: not only professional growth, but personal too

Building a positive and ethical culture

Target of change:Change, but how?

• Purpose
• Technology
• Structure
• Tasks
• People
• Culture
• Strategy
• Objectives

A paradox?

Leading change

Change, or die!!

Stimulants for organizational change / Forces for change:

• Nature of the workforce
• Technology
• Economic Shocks
• Competition
• Social Trends
• World Politics

No organization/company is always stable

Organizational Change

Exam question

Lewin’s Three-Step Model

Appreciative Inquiry

Action Research

Kotter’s Eight-Step Model

Approaches to change

How do we approach change?

Why do we resist change?

The last 3 are negative, the rest are positive. Those three can be used when the first ones don't work.

1. Education and communication
2. Participation and involvement
3. Building support and commitment
4. Develop positive relationships
5. Implement changes fairly
6. Manipulation and Co-optation
7. Selecting people who accept change
8. Explicit and Implicit coercion

How can we overcome resistance?

Organizations can be proactive or reactive. Proactive organizations are innovative and learn.

Exam question

This is a more proactive approach rather than simply adapting

Creating a culture fit for change

inspirational figures

execute

The manager is usually the leader in small organizations and startups.

The ability to influence a group toward the achievement of a vision of a set of goals.

What is leadership?

High embodiment

Low embodiment

Employees generally form a perception associating their supervisor’s identity with that of the organization. The greater the association, the greater the experience with the supervisor is as treatment from the organization.If the employee perceives the supervisor to have the same characteristics as the organization (embodiment), the treatment they get from the supervisor (praise, discipline, abuse, encouragement, etc…) will be as if it were the organization doing it.

Supervisor embodiment

“People don’t leave bad organizations, they leave bad supervisors”To the employee, is the supervisor and the organization the same? When your boss treats you well/badly, is that the organization, or the boss? The supervisor is the avatar or embodiment of the organization (for an employee).

Organizations/Supervisors

Substitutes and neutralizers of leadership

Contingency Theories

Behavioural Theories

Trait Theories

Leadership Theories

There are two contemporary approaches to inspirational leadership:

Charismatic

Transformational

Transactional

Types of leadership

Online leadership Presents its own challenges Hinges on identification-based trust Challenges Negotiations may prove difficult Communicating leadership via digital means is a new skill Reading emotions Requires strong writing skillsCan be good or bad depending on the followers

Mentoring A senior employee who sponsors and supports a less-experienced employee. "takes them under the wing"Career and psychosocial mentors Should benefit both parties involved Informal relationships tend to be more effective Team Leadership Liaising with external stakeholders Troubleshooters Conflict managers Coaches Leading teams often requires adopting new roles Expected to do the coordination effort

Leadership roles

Servant leadershipGoes beyond self interest Focuses on followers: opportunities to grow and developDoes not use power to achieve ends, uses persuasionAccepts stewardship: actively develops followers’ potentialResults Higher levels of commitment to supervisor Increased self-efficacy Increase perceptions of justice

Authentic leadershipAuthentic leaders are people who know who they are, know what they believe in and value, and act on those values and beliefs openly and candidly (Primary quality: trustworthiness)Ethical leadershipLeadership has ethical implications. Leaders must set and model high ethical standards.Cornerstones Truth telling Promise keeping Fairness Respect for the individual Results at the workplace Reduces interpersonal conflict Increases OCBs

Leadership issues

For the exam: Explain the difference between bounded rationality and intuitive and give an example.

How do we make decisions?

A decision is: A choice made from two or more alternatives

Decision Making

Escalation of Commitment

Risk aversion

Hindsight bias

Randomness error

Overconfidence bias

Confirmation bias

Availability bias

Anchoring bias

Biases in decision making

Interacting Groups Typical groups in which members interact with one another face to face. Brainstorming An idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives. Nominal Group Technique A group decision-making method in which individual members meet face to face to pool their judgments in a systematic but independent fashion

Group decision making strategies

Groupthink A phenomenon in which group pressures for conformity prevent the group from critically appraising unusual, minority, or unpopular views Groupshift A phenomenon in which the initial positions of individual group members become exaggerated because of the interactions of the group …Polarization Individuals tend to gravitate towards the extremes of their already held positions

Minimizing Groupthink/shift

Groupthink symptoms

Groupthink and Groupshift

CreativityThe ability to create new and useful ideas…Conceptualised as a three-stage model

Creativity in Decision Making

What is right and what is wrong?Where do ethics fit in?Ethics is the study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. Ethical principles help us “do the right thing.”Ethical decisions are usually never clear cut…We can lump prescriptive ethical decision making approaches into 3 categories (prescriptive approaches):Utilitarianism/ConsequentialismDeontological EthicsVirtue Ethics

Ethics in Decision Making

Corporate social responsibilityAn organization’s responsibility to consider the impact of its decisions on societyGoes well beyond simple “green actions”It tends to be a relative term that could be applied to many situations Different approaches, philosophies and outcomes

What about CSR?

Similarity-attraction theory postulates that increased similarity with a target (with respect to perceived attributes) is associated with increased attraction to that target. When lacking the information to appreciate and “individualize” another person, similarity-attraction theory suggests that people tend to develop stronger affinities and trust others that they perceive to be similar and categorize as being “like themselves”. We see that if people don’t know each other, they tend to seek out features that resemble their own – recall last week’s session on perception errors? The similarity-attraction paradigm has generally shown that employees tend to associate themselves with other that seem to have similar traits. One of these similarities is race/ethnicity.This approach may explain some of the racial discrimination that some employees are facing in today’s organizations

Similarity-attraction theory

Establishing culture The first stage in culture creation begins with the founders’ ideological approaches to various processes. The founders only hire and keep employees who think and feel the way they do. Second, they indoctrinate and socialize employees to their way of thinking and feeling. Finally, the founders’ own behaviour encourages employees to identify with the founders and thereby internalize those beliefs, values, and assumptions. When the organization succeeds, the founders’ personality becomes embedded in the culture.

Doing nothing may sometimes be the right thing to do, if that is the best thought-out course of action. If “doing nothing” out of fear, discomfort, or laziness, it usually escalates conflict. Combined with the “nothing to see here, folks” false implication may set a bad tone. Employees can see conflict. It does no good to just ignore it.

Levers

Psychological contracts are formed when a promise (explicit or implicit) has been created, and both parties are in agreement.Expectations are created in this perceived agreement.

Forming a PC

Its contribution to OB

Anthropology is the study of societies to learn about human beings and their activities.

Anthropology

• Differences in values, attitudes and behaviours
• Global business

Whether an individual acts similarly across a variety of situations. We are looking for “unusual” behaviour;

Distinctiveness

The late student…Imagine a student who shows up late, watches soccer on their laptop, isn't participating in class discussions. If this behaviour is unusual, so we tend to attribute it to external causes On the other hand, if this person always does that, it is not “unusual,” therefore we tend to judge it as internally caused

Means keeping things “under consideration”.This approach acknowledges there is a problem, but does not actually deal with it. Instead, it avoids it. It is a stalling technique. Usually it manifests in cancelled meetings, gathering more information, filing more paperwork… bureaucracy to make it go away.

Its contribution to OB

While psychology focuses on the individual, sociology studies people in relation to their social environment or culture.

Sociology

• Group behaviour in organizations
• Culture and change
• Organizational structure
• Power and conflict

If no one knows what you are doing, there can be no conflict, right? Keeping things a secret usually only delays conflict. But when it does come to a head, it is usually worse.

How does the perceiver influence their perception? Perceptions are heavily affected by personal characteristics Attitudes, Motives, Interests, Experiences, Expectations, Etc…

The Perceiver

So what? One’s own characteristics can clearly have an impact on the way they see the world. The way one perceives others tends to reflect their own demeanours Expectations are also a key concept for other notions in OB…

When people in a similar situation respond in the same way, we say that this behaviour shows consensus.

Consensus

The late student…Imagine that all the students take the same bus to get to class. If they are all late at the same time, we tend to assume that it is externally caused. On the other hand, if every student except one shows up on time, this student’s lateness can be internally caused.

Its contribution to OB

Blends concepts from both psychology and sociology to focus on people’s influence on one another.

Social Psychology

• Measuring, understanding and changing attitudes.
• Communication patterns
• Building trust
• Intergroup behaviour
• Power and conflict

Ethics The study of moral values or principles that guide our behaviour and inform us whether actions are right or wrong. The “Magnificent Seven” Dignity of human life: the lives of people are to be respected Autonomy: All persons are intrinsically valuable and have the right to self determination Honesty: The truth should be told to those who have a right to know it. Loyalty: Promises, contracts, and commitments should be honoured. Fairness: People should be treated justly. Humaneness: Our actions ought to accomplish good, and we should avoid doing evil . The common good: Actions should accomplish the greatest good for the greatest number of people

Hodgson’s General Moral Principles

Keeping culture alive Choosing members based on proper knowledge, skills, abilities and fit.Fit could mean a variety of things. The important thing to remember is that the organization maintains its culture by finding the people who can maintain its operations while fitting with the philosophy of the organization.

SIT posits that people categorize themselves as belonging to different groups. These groups can be along the lines of all sorts of categories (sports teams, ethnic backgrounds, the street you grew up on, IPhone vs Android etc…) Associating with a particular group identity may influence an individual’s attitudes and behaviours. Individuals constantly evaluate the value of belonging to a group (in-group) compared to the value of belonging to another group they do not belong to (out-group). This evaluation processes is similar to a “us vs them” comparison. Positive comparative processes could influence levels of self-esteem, whereas negative ones tend to result in competition, mobility, or coping strategies.

Social Identity Theory (SIT)

A test used to determine how individuals tend to act or feel in particular situations.Classifications Extroverted (E) or Introverted (I) Sensing (S) or Intuitive (N) Thinking (T) or Feeling (F) Perceiving (P) or Judging (J) Combined to form 16 personality types

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

How does the situation affect one’s perception? Context, time, environment, weather etc…

The Situation

So what? The circumstances surrounding an event or situation are pertinent.

The perceived incongruity between what was promised and what was delivered.

Breach

Upper decision makers Top management establish organizational norms that filter into the organization

The affective and emotional state following a breach

Violation

Reciprocal loops (positive and negative)- - Reciprocity is cyclical= when one party exchanges with another, the recipient is indebted until the debt is paid; it is through this mechanism, this series of exchanges that people and groups are suggested to remain in relationships with one another.

Reciprocal loops

Positive exchanges lead to positive reciprocation Negative exchanges lead to negative reciprocation

Socializing The process that adapts new employees to an organization’s culture.Tends to be done in three stages: Prearrival: People arrive with their own values attitudes and expectations etc…Encounter: They encounter the differences between what the organization wants and their own baggage (the employee notices the organizational culture, and whether it fits their own culture or not).Metamorphosis: Then they change to fit into the organization (adapt to the organizational culture) or they leave.

Demographical diversity usually brings different levels of representation and different ways of thinking, which tends to increase certain levels of conflict (both good and bad) and decrease effective communication. Contextual factors and demographical diversity’s indirect influence is suggested to have an effect on group performance.

Demographical diversity

Functional diversity brings a variety of job-related skills, functions, and experience that directly influence the group’s performance.

Functional diversity

Data collected through in-depth investigation of a group or individual, often done by interviews and direct observation.

Case studies

Data collected in lab settings; results can be tough to generalize.

Lab studies

Power Distance: the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally.Individualism vs Collectivism: prefer to act as individuals or as members of groups, in which all look after them and protect them.Masculinity vs Femininity:Masculinity: the culture favours traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialismFemininity: dominant values in society is the caring for others; quality of life is a sign of success and standing out from the crowd is not admirable. (sees little differentiation between male and female roles; women are treated as the equals of men in all respects)Uncertainty avoidance: the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid themLong-term vs Short-term orientation: emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence, or emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfillment of social obligationsIndulgence vs Restraint: emphasizes the gratification of basic needs and the desire to enjoy life, or emphasizes the importance of controlling the gratification of needs

Hofstede’s framework

Data collected through questions (online, pen-and-paper, phone etc…)

Surveys

Structure

• Size, specialization, and composition of the group
• Ambiguity in responsibilities
• Zero-sum systems
• Leadership styles
• Goal diversity
• Interdependency
• Rewards system

Virtually every facet of an organization can bring about conflict.

Instrumental Values Refers to preferred modes of behaviour or means for achieving the terminal values: Ambitious (hard-working, aspiring) Broad-minded (open-minded) Capable (competent, effective) Courageous (standing up for your beliefs) Imaginative (daring, creative) Honest (sincere, truthful)

Terminal Values Refers to desirable end-state existence; these are the goals that individuals would like to achieve during their lifetime: A comfortable life (a prosperous life) An exciting life (a stimulating, active life) A sense of accomplishment (lasting contribution) Equality (brotherhood, equal opportunity for all) Inner harmony (freedom from inner conflict) Happiness (contentedness)

Rokeach Value Survey

Defines culture in 9 dimensions:

1. Uncertainty avoidance
2. Power Distance
3. Institutional Collectivism
4. In-Group Collectivism
5. Gender Egalitarianism
6. Assertiveness
7. Future Orientation
8. Performance Orientation
9. Humane Orientation

GLOBE

Onsite data collection, generally involving observations of individuals and groups

Field studies

Its contribution to OB

Psychology seeks to measure, explain, and sometimes change the behaviour of humans and other animals.

Psychology

• Perceptions
• Personality
• Emotions
• Training
• Leadership
• Motivation

Communication “Noise” Too much or too little communication

Personal Variables Personality Emotions Values People often simply don’t like one another; this can cause conflict.

Conflict is suppressed using power. Outward displays of conflict are repressed and move underground. Like secrecy, pushing conflict down usually only delays it. And when it does come to a head, it is usually worse!

(subjective)

Over time, positive exchanges form high quality social exchange relationships.

Self-categorization theory suggests that by defining oneself in terms of social group membership, an individual differentiates between their own social identity and personal identities. This effectively defines their individuality; in other words, the “self” is defined by both personal and social identities.Depending on an event’s circumstances, personal and social identities will be more or less important to individual attitudes and behaviours. The relative salience, or importance, of the individual’s personal and social identities to the event’s circumstances will influence their attitudinal and behavioural outcomes, related to that event.

Social categorization theory

Western cultures Linear and limited: Deadlines are strict, failure to meet time restraints suggest poor work ethic and incompetence. Getting the job done quickly and correctly is important, even if it means sacrificing relationships Other cultures (a great variety!) Cyclical and endless: deadlines are targets that are met in different contexts. Harmony and synergy is important

Culture can also be defined in the way that they approach time: Time is still measured somewhat universally, but societies tend to differ on the their approaches to time. What is late? What is time at work (working vs. socializing)? What is the accepted sequence of activities?Monochronic cultures tend to be “clock oriented”. These cultures focus on one activity at a time. This is typically a “western” form of time orientation.Polychronic cultures tend to be “event oriented”. These cultures tend to focus on several activities at the same time. The focus on activities is unpredictable, and intermittent. Progress is shared but not always equally.

Time

When people respond the same way over time, this refers to consistency.

Consistency

The late student…Imagine a student who is always on time… one day they show up late. This behaviour is inconsistent, so we tend to attribute it to external causes On the other hand, if this person is always late, it is not “unusual,” therefore we tend to judge it as internally caused

How does the target affect one’s perception?Attractive / unattractive people, loud people, size etc… The relationship of the target with its environment is what we tend to perceive.

The Target

So what? One’s characteristics is what we tend to perceive. Examples of this include gender, ethnicity and religious orientation.

A personality assessment model that taps into five basic dimensions:Openness to experienceConscientiousnessExtraversion AgreeablenessNeuroticism (Emotional Stability)

The Big Five Model

Data collected by compiling and analyzing the results of multiple studies. Permits for stronger, more solid conclusions

Meta-analyses

Change agents People who acts as catalysts and assume the responsibility for managing change activities They “see the future”Are able to motivate, invent and implement their vision Consultants or internal

3) Refreezing Stabilizing a change intervention by balancing driving and restraining forces

2) Moving Efforts to get employees involved in the change process

Lewin’s Three-Step Model

1) Unfreezing Change efforts to overcome the pressures of both individual resistance and group conformity Increase driving forces, decrease restraining forces

Kotter’s Eight-Step Model

1. Establish a sense of urgency by creating a compelling reason for why change is needed.
2. Form a coalition with enough power to lead the change.
3. Create a new vision to direct the change and strategies for achieving the vision.
4. Communicate the vision throughout the organization.
5. Empower others to act on the vision by removing barriers to change and encouraging risk-taking and creative problem-solving.
6. Plan for, create, and reward short-term “wins” that move the organization toward the new vision.
7. Consolidate improvements, reassess changes, and make necessary adjustments in the new programs.
8. Reinforce the changes by demonstrating the relationship between new behaviours and organizational success.

1. Diagnosis: determine what the issue is that plagues the organization
2. Analyses: organize information into primary concerns, problem areas and possible actions
3. Feedback: develop plans with the organization to bring on the needed change
4. Action: carry out actions to correct the problems
5. Evaluation: determining the effectiveness of the plans

Action Research

Action research is a change process based on the systematic collection of data and then selection of a change action based on what the analyzed data indicate

Discovery: finding out the best of the organization’s strengthsDreaming: speculate on possible future avenues for the organizationDesign: based on the “dream” find a common vision of how the organization will look likeDestiny: write out the implementation plans and strategies

Appreciative inquiry

Appreciative Inquiry (AI) is an approach to change that seeks to identify the unique qualities and special strengths of an organization, which can then be built on to improve performance. This is a fairly new approach (a bit more artsy)

What is the ideal status, or state for an organization? Organizational change can be a paradox The key paradox in management is that there is no optimal status for an organization. Some research suggests that managers who can balance the paradoxical factors tend to be the most effective

Innovative organizations

Tenure: longer managerial tenure tends to be associated with legitimacy and knowledge required to obtain the desired outcomes. Slack resources: abundance of resources allows to finance innovation and absorb failuresHigh communication levels: cross departmental communications

Innovation

A new idea applied to initiating or improving a product or change. (change that leads to value)All innovations have change…But not all changes are innovations Sources of innovation: Organic structures: organizations lower in verticality, formalization and centralization tend to make the adoption of innovation easier

Managing learning

L.O. traits

Learning organization

An organization that has developed the continuous capacity to adapt and change.Single-loop learning Correction processes tend to rely on policies and routines… Double-loop learning Corrections involve modifying objectives, policies and routines. This method challenges assumptions

• Compliments from the supervisor are heard as a compliment from the organization
• Abuse by the supervisor is felt as abuse from the organization
• Statements from the supervisor are perceived as accurate and definitive; requests are backed by the force of the organization

May lead to more impactful effects on employee attitudes and behaviours

High embodiment

• Supervisors are seen as acting independently, on their own behalf
• The employee-supervisor relationship is seen as independent from the exchange relationship between the employee and the organization
• Criticisms are not seen as coming from the organization
• Statements from the supervisor are perceived as less accurate; additional sources of information are desired to verify information

May not always lead to the same extent of effects on the attitudes and behaviours of employees

Low embodiment

Trait leadership

Personality, social, physical or intellectual traits create leaders Big Five predictions Extroversion Conscientiousness Openness … Emotional Intelligence too Traits can predict leadership, but they are better at predicting leader emergence… Leaders are BORN with it.

Behavioural theories of leadership

Behaviours make the leader, leadership can be learned

Contingency theories… it depends?

These subtypes of leadership theories emphasize context Fiedler Contingency Model Hersey and Blanchard Situational Theory Path-Goal Theory Substitutes for Leadership

They have more implicit referent power (people like them and are willing to do things for them)Strong individual capabilities (technical skills)

How they influence others

Charismatic Leadership

Charisma: A certain quality of an individual personality, by which he/she is set apart from ordinary people and treated as endowed with supernatural, or at least exceptional powers or qualitiesCharacteristics of charismatic leaders: Have a vision Are willing to take personal risks to achieve it Sensitive to followers’ needs Display out of the ordinary behaviours

Leaders who guide or motivate their followers in the direction of established goals by clarifying role and task requirements Use contingent rewards Tend to manage by exception Laissez faire style of leader (a policy or attitude of letting things take their own course, without interfering)

Transactional Leaders

Inspire followers to transcend their own self-interests for the good of the organization; they can have a profound and extraordinary effect on followers Provide vision, mission, pride, and foster mutual trust and respect Inspires and motivate by inspiration to go beyond.Intellectual stimulation Individualized consideration for others

Transformational Leaders

Assumes the decision maker: Has complete information Is able to identify all relevant options Totally unbiased Always chooses the option with the highest utility Usually not followed/used Most decisions are made by judgement

Rational Decision-Making Model

Rational Decision-Making

Refers to the choices that are consistent and value-maximizing, within specified constraints.

We tend to use this model more frequently

Assumes the decision maker: Reduces a complex issue into a reality they understand Simplified models that focus on the essential features of the issue at hand Results in behaving rationally within those set boundaries Seek a solution that is “good enough”Most decisions are made by judgement Most people are happy with an acceptable solution Tend to limit choices to the immediate problem and close alternatives

Bounded Rationality decision model

Bounded Rationality

Limitations on an individual’s ability to interpret, process, and act on information. Assumes that the human mind cannot formulate and solve complex situations with complete rationality

Not rational, but not wrong: We use it all the time!Not contradictory, but complementary: Does not negate rational decision makingNot magic, but complex: It is based on years of experience and learning

Intuitive decision making

An unconscious process created out of a person’s many experiences. The least rational way of making decisions.

Illusions of invulnerability Overconfidence, taking extraordinary risks Assumption of morality Infallible belief in the moral rightness of their objectives and the ethics of their actions Rationalized Resistance Resistance to their assumptions, no matter the evidence against Peer Pressure Application of pressure on dissenters who question the majority Minimized Doubts Those dissenters keep silent and minimize themselves Illusion of unanimity Silence means full agreement

Minimize group size Keeps members from getting too intimidated Encourage group leaders to be impartial Avoid expressing own opinions, seek input from different sources Appoint a devil’s advocate To challenge the group’s position and offer perspective Stimulate discussion Encourage different views and gain objective evaluations