Mind Map on Macromolecules and Bioelements

Macromolecules and Biolements

Nucleic Acids

Proteins

Biogenic elements

Lipids

Function

Structure

Carbohydartes

DNA

Fatty Acids

RNA

Monosaccharides

Steroids

Waxes

Phospholipids

Oligosaccharides

Polysaccharides

Triglycerides

Disaccharides

Trace elements

Secondary elements

Primary elements

Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides. Examples include sucrose, lactose, and maltose.

Oligosaccharides are composed of 3-10 monosaccharide units linked together. Examples include raffinose and stachyose.

Monosaccharides are the simplest form of carbohydrates and cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units. Examples include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Esters composed of three fatty acid units linked to glycerol, forming fats and oils.

Lipids with a glycerol backbone, two fatty acid tails, and a phosphate group, making them amphipathic and important components of cell membranes.

Carboxylic acids with long hydrocarbon chains, which can be saturated or unsaturated.

• Structure: Usually single-stranded; can fold into complex shapes.
• Function: Involved in protein synthesis and regulation. There are several types of RNA:
  • Messenger RNA (mRNA): Carries genetic information from DNA to ribosomes for protein synthesis.
  • Ribosomal RNA (rRNA): A structural component of ribosomes, facilitating translation.
  • Transfer RNA (tRNA): Transfers amino acids to the ribosome during protein synthesis.

• Structure: Typically double-stranded, forming a helical structure.
• Function: Stores genetic information and is responsible for inheritance.

1. Fibrous Proteins: These proteins have elongated, structural shapes and are typically insoluble in water , for example collagen and keratin.
2. Globular Proteins: These proteins are compact and spherical, often soluble in water, for example enzymes and antibodies.

1. Enzymatic Proteins: Catalysts that speed up biochemical reactions, for example amylase and lactase.
2. Structural Proteins: Provide support and shape to cells and organisms, for example collagen, keratin and elastin.
3. Transport Proteins: Carry substances throughout the body, for example hemoglobin transports oxygen) and myoglobin.
4. Defensive Proteins: Protect against pathogens, for example antibodies.
5. Storage Proteins: Store amino acids and other nutrients, for example casein in milk.
6. Hormonal Proteins: Act as signaling molecules, for example insulin, glucagon, and growth hormone.

Polysaccharides are large molecules composed of many monosaccharide units linked together. Examples include starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Lipids with a characteristic four-fused-ring structure, including cholesterol, hormones, and vitamin D.

Esters of long-chain alcohols and fatty acids, providing protection in plants and animals.

Lipids are a diverse group of organic compounds that are insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents. They are composed primarily of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms and are essential for various biological functions. Lipids can be broadly defined as hydrophobic or amphiphilic small molecules, with some lipids capable of forming structures like vesicles, liposomes, or membranes in an aqueous environment due to their amphiphilic nature.

Properties

Functions

Sources

Classification

• Lipids may exist as liquids or non-crystalline solids at room temperature.
• Pure lipids are colorless, odorless, and tasteless.
• They are energy-rich organic molecules.
• Insoluble in water but soluble in organic solvents like alcohol, chloroform, acetone, benzene, etc.
• Have no ionic charges.
• Solid triglycerides (fats) have high proportions of saturated fatty acids, while liquid triglycerides (oils) have high proportions of unsaturated fatty acids.

• Energy storage: Triglycerides stored in adipose tissue are a major form of energy storage in animals and plants.
• Structural components: Phospholipids and sterols are major structural elements of biological membranes.
• Signaling: Some lipids act as hormones or as precursors to hormones, playing crucial roles in signaling pathways.
• Insulation and protection: Lipids provide insulation and protection for various organs in the body.
• Absorption of fat-soluble vitamins: Lipids facilitate the absorption of vitamins A, D, E, and K.

• Animal sources: Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products (e.g., milk, cheese, yogurt).
• Plant sources: Nuts, seeds, avocados, olives, and certain vegetables.

1. Simple lipids: Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols, including fats, oils, and waxes.
2. Compound lipids: Lipids that yield other substances (e.g., fatty acids, alcohols, phosphoric acid) on hydrolysis, including phospholipids, glycolipids, and lipoproteins.

Carbohydrates are organic compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. They are the most abundant class of biomolecules and serve as a major source of energy for living organisms.

Properties

Sources

Functions

Classification

• Carbohydrates are neutral compounds, with the general formula (CH2O)n, where n is at least three.
• They are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substances that produce such compounds on hydrolysis.
• Carbohydrates are generally soluble in water and insoluble in non-polar solvents.
• They have a sweet taste, except for cellulose.

• Grains: Wheat, rice, oats, barley, and corn
• Fruits: Apples, bananas, oranges, and berries
• Vegetables: Potatoes, corn, peas, and leafy greens
• Legumes: Beans, lentils, and peas
• Dairy products: Milk and yogurt
• Sweets: Candy, honey, and syrup

• Energy production: Carbohydrates are the primary source of energy for the body, providing 4 calories per gram.
• Structural support: Cellulose and chitin provide structural support in plant and animal cell walls, respectively.
• Storage: Starch in plants and glycogen in animals serve as storage forms of carbohydrates.
• Protein glycosylation: Carbohydrates are attached to some proteins, influencing their structure and function.
• Lubrication and protection: Mucopolysaccharides provide lubrication and protection in connective tissues.

They divide into Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides and Disaccharides) and Complex Carbohydrates (Oligosaccharides and Polysaccharides).

There are elements that are more predominant than others when we are talking about living beings, this being Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen, also known as the primary bioelements; and when we are talking about the human body they comprise around 96% of it. There also are secondary and trace elements, which are present in our body at lower numbers, still all of them are important for the functioning of a being.

Within biology, there are some aspects related to chemistry, for this, we shall remember that chemistry describes what we are made of to the most fundamental level, the atom, and as we know there are a great variety of different atoms depending on the element; if we are going to study life and its composition then we need to know its functioning to its smallest level, with biogenic elements and biomolecules.

These are the bioelements that have presence of more than96% in our body and are the ones that are part of the main molecules in our body.

It is a nonmetal that can form stable bonds (single, double, and triple) with many elements, including itself, allowing for the formation of complex molecules. It is the backbone of organic chemistry, forming the structure of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

It is the lightest and most abundant element in the universe, existing primarily as a diatomic molecule. It is a key component of water and organic compounds, its bonds are crucial in stabilizing the structures of proteins and nucleic acids. It also plays a role in energy transfer within cells.

It is essential for respiration in aerobic organisms, it is involved in energy production through cellular respiration and it is also a part of water and many organic molecules, contributing to their chemical reactivity.

It is a critical component of amino acids (the building blocks of proteins) and nucleic acids (DNA and RNA). Nitrogen is involved in various biochemical processes, including the nitrogen cycle, which is essential for plant nutrition.

It is a reactive nonmetal that exists in several forms, primarily as phosphate in biological systems. It is a vital component of DNA, RNA, and ATP (adenosine triphosphate), which is essential for energy transfer in cells. Phosphorus is also important for bone formation in conjunction with calcium.

It is a nonmetal that is found in nature in various forms, including sulfide and sulfate. It is a key component of certain amino acids and vitamins, and plays a significant role in protein structure and function through disulfide bonds, which help stabilize protein conformation.

Also known as minor biogenic elements, are essential for various biological functions but are found in smaller quantities compared to primary elements.

It is a soft, gray metal that is essential for various biological processes. It plays a critical role in bone and teeth formation, muscle contraction, blood clotting, and neurotransmitter release. Calcium ions are vital for cellular signaling and maintaining membrane potential.

It is a soft, waxy, silver-white metal that is crucial for maintaining fluid balance, nerve signal transmission, and muscle contraction. Potassium ions are essential for the proper functioning of cells, particularly in nerve and muscle tissues.

It is a soft, silvery-white metal that is vital for maintaining osmotic balance and fluid regulation in the body. Sodium ions are critical for nerve impulse transmission and muscle contraction.

It is a shiny gray metal that acts as a cofactor for numerous enzymes involved in metabolic processes, including ATP production. Magnesium is also important for bone structure and muscle function.

It is a greenish-yellow gas at room temperature that is essential for maintaining osmotic balance and is involved in the production of hydrochloric acid in the stomach, which aids in digestion.

It is a metal that is essential for various biological processes and it is crucial for oxygen transport in the blood and is found in hemoglobin, and is involved in various enzymatic reactions. Iron deficiency can lead to anemia and other health issues.

Trace elements are essential minerals required by the human body in very small amounts, typically less than 0.1% of total body weight and despite their low concentration, they play critical roles in various physiological processes.

It is a reddish-brown metal that is involved in the formation of red blood cells and is essential for the functioning of several enzymes. It also helps maintain the health of blood vessels, nerves, and bones.

It is a bluish-white metal that is vital for numerous biological functions. Zinc plays a critical role in cell division, growth, and tissue repair. It supports immune function and is involved in the activity of over 300 enzymes.

It is a nonmetal that acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from oxidative damage. It is also important for thyroid hormone metabolism and immune function.

It is a nonmetal that is a key component of thyroid hormones (thyroxine and triiodothyronine), which regulate metabolism, growth, and development. Iodine deficiency can lead to goiter and other thyroid-related disorders.

It is a metal that is a cofactor for several important enzymes involved in the metabolism of sulfur-containing amino acids and other compounds.

It is a metal that is essential for glucose metabolism. Chromium enhances the action of insulin and is involved in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. It helps maintain normal blood sugar levels.

It is a metal that is part of vitamin B12. Cobalt is essential for the production of red blood cells and is involved in the metabolism of certain amino acids and fatty acids.

It a is a silvery-white metal with a slight golden tinge, known for its resistance to corrosion and oxidation. It plays a role in various enzymatic processes and is important for iron absorption in the body.

It is a pale yellow gas or a white crystalline solid in its ionic form, which is essential for dental health, as it helps to strengthen tooth enamel and prevent cavities.

It is a metalloid that is involved in bone health and may play a role in hormone regulation. Boron is also important for plant growth and is used in fertilizers.

It is a metalloid that while not traditionally classified as an essential trace element for humans, silicon is believed to play a role in bone health and connective tissue formation.

It is a soft, silver-gray metal involved in various biological processes, including enhancing insulin sensitivity.

It s a hard, brittle metal that is essential for bone formation, metabolism, and the functioning of several enzymes. Manganese is also important for antioxidant defense systems in the body.

Proteins are large, complex biomolecules made up of long chains of amino acid residues. They play critical roles in various biological processes and are essential for the structure, function, and regulation of the body’s tissues and organs.

Characteristics

Properties

Classification

Functions

Sources

• High Molecular Weight: Proteins have a high molecular weight, typically ranging from 5 to 300 kilodaltons.
• Amino Acid Composition: Proteins are composed of 20 different amino acids, linked together by peptide bonds.
• Structural Diversity: They can range in shape from simple globular structures to complex fibrous forms.
• Biological Functionality: Proteins are involved in virtually every biological process, including catalyzing metabolic reactions, providing structural support, and facilitating communication within and between cells.
• Specificity: Proteins are species-specific and organ-specific, meaning that the proteins in one species differ from those in another and that different organs produce different proteins.

• Peptide Bonds: Amino acids are linked by peptide bonds, formed between the amino group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another, releasing water in the process.
• Structure-Function Relationship: The specific sequence of amino acids determines the protein's structure and function. Changes in this sequence can significantly affect the protein's activity.
• Amphoteric Nature: Proteins can act as both acids and bases due to the presence of amino and carboxyl groups.
• Solubility: Proteins can be soluble or insoluble in water, depending on their structure and composition.

They are classified by: Structure Function

• Catalysis: Enzymes facilitate biochemical reactions, making them essential for metabolism.
• Support and Structure: Proteins provide structural integrity to cells and tissues.
• Transport: Proteins transport molecules across cell membranes and throughout the body.
• Defense: Antibodies protect the body from foreign invaders.
• Regulation: Hormones regulate physiological processes and maintain homeostasis.
• Movement: Proteins are involved in muscle contraction and movement (e.g., actin and myosin).

• Animal Sources: Meat, fish, eggs, dairy products (e.g., milk, cheese, yogurt).
• Plant Sources: Legumes (beans, lentils), nuts, seeds, whole grains, and certain vegetables.

Nucleic acids are large biomolecules essential for all forms of life, composed of long chains of nucleotides. They serve as the primary carriers of genetic information in cells. The two main types of nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA).

Characteristics

Properties

Functions

Classification

Sources

• Polymeric Structure: Nucleic acids are polymers made up of repeating units called nucleotides.
• Nucleotide Composition: Each nucleotide consists of three components: a nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar (deoxyribose in DNA and ribose in RNA), and a phosphate group.
• Directionality: Nucleic acids have inherent directionality, with a 5' end (phosphate group) and a 3' end (hydroxyl group).
• Stability: DNA is generally more stable than RNA due to its double-stranded helical structure, while RNA is typically single-stranded and more prone to degradation.

• Base Pairing: In DNA, adenine pairs with thymine (A-T) and guanine pairs with cytosine (G-C). In RNA, adenine pairs with uracil (A-U) instead of thymine.
• Hydrogen Bonding: The nitrogenous bases are held together by hydrogen bonds, contributing to the stability of the DNA double helix and the structure of RNA.
• Genetic Information Storage: Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information, guiding cellular functions and heredity.

• Genetic Information Transmission: Nucleic acids are responsible for the transmission of hereditary traits from parents to offspring.
• Protein Synthesis: They play a crucial role in the synthesis of proteins by providing the template for amino acid sequencing.
• Regulation of Cellular Activities: DNA controls cellular activities by regulating gene expression.
• Biological Evolution: Nucleic acids are involved in processes that contribute to evolution, such as mutations and genetic recombination.

Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) and Ribonucleic Acid (RNA).

• Animal Sources: Meat, fish, eggs, and dairy products provide nucleic acids through cellular structures.
• Plant Sources: Fruits, vegetables, grains, and legumes also contain nucleic acids.
• Microorganisms: Yeasts and bacteria are rich sources of nucleic acids.

References Biogenic elements. (June 20, 2024). Pcc. Recovered September 10, 2024, from https://www.products.pcc.eu/en/academy/biogenic-elements/ Committee on Diet and Health, Food and Nutrition Board, Commission on Life Sciences, & National Research Council. (1989). Trace Elements. En Diet and Health: Implications for Reducing Chronic Disease Risk. National Academies Press (US). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK218751/ Deamer, D. W. (February 27, 2024). How six elements came together to form life on Earth. OUPblog. Recovered September 10, 2024, from https://blog.oup.com/2019/02/how-six-elements-form-life-earth/ Haurowitz, F., & Koshland, D. E. (September 9, 2024). Protein | Definition, Structure, & Classification. Recovered September 10, 2024, from Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/science/protein Morales-Brown, P. (May 10, 2024). What you need to know about carbs. Recovered September 10, 2024, from https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/161547 Thompson, T. E. (August 17, 2024). Lipid | Definition, Structure, Examples, Functions, Types, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Recovered September 10, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/science/lipid