Workers final.pptx

workers

By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 在本章结束时，学生应该能够：

• understand the wage and non-wage factors affecting an individual’s choice of occupation 理解影响个人职业选择的工资和非工资因素
• understand the factors that determine wages 理解决定工资的因素
• discuss the reasons for differences in earnings 讨论收入差异的原因
• understand the advantages and disadvantages of specialisation for workers, firms and the economy. 理解专业化对工人、公司和经济的优缺点。

18 – Workers – Occupation Factors

• Non-wage factors are aspects of a job that affect decision-making beyond salary. These include job satisfaction, work-life balance, career advancement opportunities, work environment, job security, recognition, work hours, company culture, job location, and benefits. 非工资因素是指影响工作决策的除工资外的各个方面。这些因素包括工作满意度、工作与生活的平衡、职业发展机会、工作环境、工作保障、认可、工作时间、公司文化、工作地点和福利。：

• Wage factors refer to the financial rewards that workers receive in return for their labour services. 工资因素是指工人因其劳动服务而获得的经济报酬。 These are a major influence on their choice of occupation. 这些是影响他们职业选择的主要因素.

Factors affecting an individual’s choice of occupation 影响个人职业选择的因素 An individual's choice of occupation depends on many factors, which can be categorised as wage- and non-wage factors. 个人的职业选择取决于许多因素，这些因素可以分为工资因素和非工资因素。

18 – Workers – Occupation Factors

Factors affecting an individual’s choice of occupation- Wage factors. 影响个人职业选择的因素 - 工资因素

18 – Workers – Wage Factors

Factors affecting an individual’s choice of occupation

• Non-wage factors are also a major influence on an individual's choice of occupation. While a person may be motivated by money in the short term, he or she will also want to feel happy and motivated at work in the long term.
• 影响个人职业选择的因素
• 非工资因素也是影响个人职业选择的主要因素。虽然一个人在短期内可能会受到金钱的驱动，但从长远来看，他或她也希望在工作中感到快乐和有动力。

18 – Workers – Occupation Factors

Mnemonic: "Cats Prefer Delicious Treats Every Rainy Season Evenings."

• Challenge
• Prospects
• Danger
• Training
• Education
• Recognition
• Satisfaction
• Experience

Factors Influencing an Individual's Occupational Choice

• Non-wage factors that impact an individual's selection of occupation include the following:

18 – Workers – Non Wage Factors

• 挑战程度: 这份工作需要思考和解决问题的能力，还是重复和单调的？
• 职业前景: 在公司内部是否有晋升机会，还是需要换工作才能得到提升？
• 危险程度: 这份工作是否危险？一些工作涉及高风险，例如救生艇救援队、消防员和脚手架安装工。
• 所需培训时间: 一些工作需要的培训时间很少，而其他工作，如土木工程师和外科医生，则需要多年的教育。
• 所需教育水平: 有些工作几乎不需要正式教育，而另一些工作，如教授和牙医，则需要高等学位。
• 工作中的认可度: 员工的工作是否得到认可和赞扬？这可以激励他们更好地表现并继续留在岗位上。
• 个人满意度: 这份工作是否带来个人幸福感和满足感？这可以导致更高的奉献度和工作持久性。
• 所需经验水平: 有些工作几乎不需要经验，而另一些工作，如法官，则需要相当的经验

• Level of Challenge: Does the job require thinking and problem-solving, or is it repetitive and monotonous?
• Career Prospects: Are there opportunities for advancement within the company, or would one need to change jobs to get promoted?
• Level of Danger: Is the job dangerous? Some jobs involve high risk, like those of lifeboat rescue teams, firefighters, and scaffolders.
• Length of Training Required: Some jobs require minimal training, while others, like civil engineers and surgeons, require years of education.
• Level of Education Required: Some jobs need little to no formal education, whereas others, like professors and dentists, require advanced degrees.
• Recognition in the Job: Does the worker receive acknowledgment and praise for their work? This can motivate them to perform better and stay in the role.
• Personal Satisfaction: Does the job provide personal happiness and fulfillment? This can lead to greater dedication and job longevity.
• Level of Experience Required: Some jobs need little to no experience, while others, like judges, require substantial experience.

Factors affecting an individual’s choice of occupation

• Nonwage factors that influence an individual's choice of occupation include the following:

18 – Workers – Non Wage Factors

Wage determination 工资的确定 Wages are determined by the interaction of the demand for Labour and the supply of Labour. 工资由劳动力的需求和供给之间的相互作用决定。 For example, the combination of high demand (ability and willingness to pay) for neurosurgeons and their low supply means their pay is very high. 例如，对神经外科医生的高需求（支付能力和意愿）与他们的低供给相结合，意味着他们的工资非常高。

18 – Workers – Wage Determination

For example, bakers are demanded for the bread they bake, rather than for the sake of hiring bakers. 例如，面包师是因为他们烘焙的面包而被需求，而不是因为雇用面包师本身

This means that labour is demanded for the goods and services it produces, and not for itself. 这意味着劳动力的需求是因为它生产的商品和服务，而不是因为劳动力本身。

As with all factors of production, the demand for labour is a derived demand. 与所有生产要素一样，劳动力的需求是衍生需求。

The demand for labour refers to the number of workers that firms are willing and able to employ at a given wage rate. 劳动力的需求是指公司在特定工资水平上愿意并能够雇用的工人数。

The labour force participation rate is the percentage of the working population that is working, rather than unemployed.

The supply of labour refers to everyone in an economy who is of working age and willing and able to work at different wage rates.

The supply of Labour. 劳动力的供给

The demand for Labour: 劳动力的需求

18 – Workers – Wage Determination

• Figure 18.1 shows a downward-sloping demand for labour (D1) curve. 图18.1显示了一条向下倾斜的劳动力需求曲线（D1）。
• When the wage rate falls from W1 to W2, the number of workers demanded increases from N1 to N2. 当工资率从W1下降到W2时，需求的工人数从N1增加到N2 This is because firms (employers) are able to hire more workers when the wage rate is lower. 这是因为当工资率较低时，公司（雇主）能够雇用更多的工人

The supply of Labour

• Figure 18.2 shows an upward-sloping supply of labour (S1) curve.图18.2显示了一条向上倾斜的劳动力供给曲线（S1）。
• If the wage rate in an industry increases from W1 to W2, the number of people willing to work will increase from N1 to N2 because more workers are attracted by higher wages.
• 如果某行业的工资率从W1增加到W2，愿意工作的人数将从N1增加到N2，因为更高的工资吸引了更多的工人。

The demand for Labour

18 – Workers – Demand and Supply for Labour

The equilibrium wage rate is determined when the wage rate workers are willing to work for equals the wage rate that firms (employers) are prepared to pay - that is, when the demand for labour is equal to the supply of labour 均衡工资率是在工人愿意工作的工资率与公司（雇主）愿意支付的工资率相等时决定的——也就是说，当劳动力的需求等于劳动力的供给时

Equilibrium wage rate

D1

S1

We

Ne

Wage rate per hour ($)

Number of workers employed

• Figure 18.4 - Equilibrium wage rate determination

For the vast majority of jobs in a market economy, wages are determined by the interaction of the demand for and supply of labour 在市场经济中，绝大多数工作的工资是由劳动力的供需关系决定的

18 – Workers – Equilibrium Wage

Occupational mobility 职业流动性

Geographical mobility 地理流动性

Changing social status 社会地位的变化

Availability and level of welfare benefits 福利待遇的可用性和水平

Cost of labor 劳动成本

Productivity 生产率

Total level of demand 总需求水平

• The factors that influence the supply for labour include the following (Labour Force Participation rate):影响劳动力供给的因素包括以下几项（劳动参与率）：

The supply of Labour

• The factors that influence the demand for labour include the following: 影响劳动力需求的因素包括以下几项：

The demand for Labour

18 – Workers – Demand/ Supply of Labour

The factors that influence the demand for labour include the following: 影响劳动力需求的因素包括以下几项：

Occupational mobility: This refers to the extent to which a person is able to change between jobs. 职业流动性：指一个人能够在工作之间转换的程度

Geographical mobility: Can move to another part of the country地理流动性：可以搬迁到国内的其他地区。Family ties and related commitments: Costs of living. 家庭纽带和相关承诺：生活成本。

Changing social attitudes: More women entering the workforce. Delay having families. 社会态度的变化：更多女性进入劳动力市场。推迟组建家庭。

Availability and level of welfare benefits: If welfare benefits are too high, fewer people will work. Live off the state. 福利待遇的可用性和水平：如果福利待遇过高，工作的人会减少。依靠国家生活。

• The factors that influence the supply for labour include the following (Labour Force Participation rate):影响劳动力供给的因素包括以下几项（劳动参与率）：

The cost of labour – Machine versus human 劳动成本——机器与人工的比较

The productivity of labour – Higher the productivity, the greater the demand. 劳动生产率——生产率越高，需求越大。

The level of total demand in the economy – Economy grows, greater demand. Economy shrinks, less demand 经济中的总需求水平——经济增长时，需求增加；经济萎缩时，需求减少

18 – Workers – Demand and Supply for Labour

Level of education: a person's level of education tends to affect their earnings

Age and experience: earnings change over a person's lifetime.

Trade unions: trade unions will use their bargaining strength to negotiate on behalf of their members.

The ability of workers to achieve higher wages depends partly on their ability to negotiate and bargain with their employers. 工人获得更高工资的能力部分取决于他们与雇主谈判和协商的能力。 This is affected by several factors: 这受多个因素的影响

18 – Workers – Relative Bargaining

• Wage determination is also influenced by government policy in the form of national minimum wage (NMW) legislation.
• 工资的确定也受到政府政策的影响，表现为全国最低工资（NMW）立法。
• This is the lowest amount a firm can pay its workers as set by the government.
• 这是政府规定的公司可以支付给工人的最低金额。
• Any firm which pays workers less than the legal minimum wage is breaking the law.
• 任何支付工人工资低于法定最低工资的公司都在违法。

Government policy: the minimum wage

18 – Workers- Government Policies-Minimum Wage

• However, the quantity of labour demanded falls from N1 to N3 然而，劳动力的需求量从N1下降到N3，
• because firms (employers) are less able or willing to pay as many workers at a higher wage rate. 因为公司（雇主）在更高的工资率下不太能够或愿意支付这么多工人的工资。
• As the quantity of labour supplied is greater than the quantity demanded, 由于劳动力的供给量大于需求量，
• there is a surplus of labour at a wage rate of W2. 在W2的工资水平下会出现劳动力过剩。
• Thus, if the NMW is set too high, this may lead to unemployment in the economy, at least in the short run. 因此，如果全国最低工资（NMW）设定过高，至少在短期内可能会导致经济中的失业

• In Figure 18.5, the equilibrium wage rate before the national minimum wage is W1 and N1 workers are demanded and supplied. 在图18.5中，全国最低工资出台前的均衡工资率为W1，需求和供给的工人为N1。
• If the government introduces an NMW which is above the equilibrium wage at W2, 如果政府引入一个高于均衡工资的全国最低工资（NMW），即W2，
• then the quantity of labour supplied to the market increases from N1 to N2 那么市场上供给的劳动力数量将从N1增加到N2，
• as more workers are prepared to work for a higher wage rate. 因为更多的工人愿意为更高的工资工作

Government policy: the minimum wage

18 – Workers – Minimum Wage

Disadvantages of a minimum wage include the following:

• Higher-paid workers may demand wage increases to maintain the gap above minimum wage earners. 工资较高的工人可能会要求加薪，以保持与最低工资工人的差距。
• For example, if cleaners get a raise due to an NMW increase, other staff might also seek raises, 例如，如果清洁工因最低工资上涨而加薪，其他员工可能也会要求加薪，
• leading to further increases in labor costs for firms. 这将导致公司劳动力成本的进一步上涨

Advantages of a national minimum wage include the following:

• Workers receive a fair wage and are not exploited by employers. 工人获得公平的工资，不会被雇主剥削。
• Unemployed people may be motivated to work as wages become more attractive than welfare. 失业者可能因工资比福利更有吸引力而受到工作的激励。
• Low-income earners have more to spend, which can boost consumption and counter fears of unemployment from higher wages. 低收入者有更多的钱可以消费，这可以促进消费，并缓解因工资上涨（以及生产成本增加）而导致失业的担忧

Government policy: the minimum wage

18 – Workers – Minimum Wage

Differences in salaries

Private & public sector pay differences 私营部门与公共部门之间的薪酬差异

Industrial sector pay differences 行业部门之间的薪酬差异

Gender pay differences 性别薪酬差异- Women and men

Differences in pay between skilled & unskilled workers 熟练工人与非熟练工人之间的薪酬差异

Reasons for differences in earnings

18 – Workers – Why do people earn different incomes

Differences between skilled and unskilled workers 熟练工人与非熟练工人之间的差异 The supply of doctors is lower than that of waiters, as illustrated in 医生的供给量低于服务员的供给量，如图所示.

18 – Workers – Skilled versus Unskilled

18 – Workers – Skilled versus Unskilled

Differences between skilled and unskilled workers

• Waiters are elastic in supply (Swaiters). 服务员的供给是弹性的（Swaiters）。
• If the demand for waiters increases from DL1 to DL2: 如果对服务员的需求从DL1增加到DL2
• The percentage change in the quantity of waiters supplied (w1 to w2) will be greater than the percentage increase in wages (w1 to w2). 服务员供给量的百分比变化（w1到w2）将大于工资的百分比增长（w1到w2）。
• This is indicated by the red arrows. 这一点由红色箭头表示。
• The job requires few skills. 这份工作所需的技能较少。
• It is relatively easy to increase the supply of waiters in the short term. 在短期内增加服务员的供给相对容易。

18 – Workers – Skilled versus Unskilled

Differences between skilled and unskilled workers

• Doctors are inelastic in supply (Sdoctors). 相比之下，医生的供给是无弹性的（Sdoctors）。
• If demand for doctors increases from DL1 to DL2: 如果对医生的需求从DL1增加到DL2：
• The percentage change in quantity of doctors supplied (d1 to d2) in the short term will be less than the percentage increase in wages (Wd1 to Wd2). 短期内医生供给量的百分比变化（d1到d2）将小于工资的百分比增长（Wd1到Wd2）。
• This is because the level of qualifications and length of training required both make it difficult to increase the supply of doctors in the short term. 这是因为所需的资格水平和培训时间都使得在短期内增加医生的供给变得困难。
• A relatively large increase in wages is required to attract people to study and train as doctors, as illustrated by the blue arrows. 需要相对较大幅度的工资增长才能吸引人们学习和培训成为医生，如蓝色箭头所示。

18 – Workers – Skilled versus Unskilled

• Figure 18.7 - Median weekly earnings for UK full-time employees by gender and age, 2016

Differences between male and female workers

• In literally all countries, there is a noticeable difference between the average wages of male and female workers (see Figure 18.7).

18 – Workers – Male versus Female

Private sector 私营部门 Profit incentive to be efficient 利润激励提高效率 Entrepreneurs create jobs where needed 企业家在需要的地方创造就业 Less bureaucracy and scope for corruption 更少的官僚主义和腐败空间 Doesn't require taxes to fund 不需要税收来资助

Public sector 公共部门 Provides public goods 提供公共产品 Not affected by recession 不受经济衰退影响 Gov't jobs to protect environment 政府工作保护环境 Helps reduce inequality in society 帮助减少社会不平等

Differences between private and public sector workers. 私营部门与公共部门工人之间的差异

• Private sector workers often earn more than public sector workers.
• Public sector jobs, however, tend to offer more job security and retirement pensions.

Differences between male and female workers. 男性与女性工人之间的差异

• More women work part-time, leading to lower average earnings. 更多女性从事兼职工作，导致平均收入较低。
• Career breaks for childbirth reduce promotional opportunities for women. 因生育而中断职业生涯减少了女性的晋升机会。
• Women may choose lower-paid, flexible jobs to accommodate childcare. 女性可能会选择薪酬较低、时间灵活的工作来适应育儿安排。
• Women may experience workplace discrimination. 女性可能会遭遇职场歧视。

18 – Workers – Male versus Female

Division of Labour and Specialisation of Labour 劳动分工与劳动专业化 Specialisation of labour occurs when a worker becomes an expert in a particular profession, such as a landscape architect, a psychiatric nurse, an electrical engineer, or an economics professor. 劳动专业化发生在工人成为某一特定职业的专家时，例如景观建筑师、精神科护士、电气工程师或经济学教授。 Division of labour occurs when a production process or task is split between different workers, who become experts in a part of the process. 劳动分工发生在生产过程或任务被分配给不同工人时，他们成为该过程中某一部分的专家。 Examples are supermarket checkout operators, waiters serving people in a restaurant, and factory workers who operate machinery. 例如，超市收银员、餐厅服务员以及操作机器的工厂工人。

Specialisation of labour refers to workers being expert in a particular profession. Division of labour refers to workers being expert in a particular production process.

18 – Workers – Specialisation

Division of Labour and Specialisation of Labour 劳动分工与劳动专业化- Disadvantages The work may become repetitive and boring. 工作可能变得重复和枯燥。 Workers may become alienated, especially those specialising in low-skilled work. 工人可能会感到疏离，特别是那些从事低技能工作的工人。 The production process may become overspecialised - that is, too dependent on an individual worker or group of workers. 生产过程可能变得过度专业化——即过于依赖某个工人或工人群体。 The workers may become deskilled in other areas - in other words, there is a lack of flexibility. 工人在其他领域可能会失去技能——换句话说，缺乏灵活性。 These disadvantages culminate in lower motivation, productivity and output for firms. 这些劣势最终会导致公司积极性、生产力和产出的下降。

Division of Labour and Specialisation of Labour 劳动分工与劳动专业化- Advantages Workers become experts in their field, so their productivity and efficiency increase. 工人会在其领域内成为专家，因此他们的生产力和效率都会提高。 The quality of the product or service increases. 产品或服务的质量提高。 Workers can become very skillful, so their earning potential may increase. 工人可以变得非常熟练，因此他们的收入潜力可能会增加。 These advantages culminate in higher motivation, productivity, output, and competitiveness for firms. 这些优势最终会使公司获得更高的积极性、生产力、产出和竞争力。

18 – Workers – Specialisation

Case Study: The rich and famous

There are some people with special talents or qualities who earn exceptionally high wages. 有些人拥有特殊的才能或品质，他们的工资异常高。 Examples are supermodels, top footballers and tennis players, and famous celebrities and 'A-list' actors. 例如，超级名模、顶级足球运动员和网球运动员，以及著名名人和"A级"演员。 This is because their skills are exceptional and are in short supply, and thus their labour supply curve is price inelastic as shown in Figure 18.8. 这是因为他们的技能非常出众且供不应求，因此他们的劳动力供给曲线是价格无弹性的，如图18.8所示。

18 – Workers – Specialisation

The backward-bending supply of labour curve occurs primarily due to the income effect. 劳动力供给曲线的后弯主要是由于收入效应引起的。 As wages increase beyond a certain level, workers earn enough to meet their financial needs and may prefer more leisure time over additional income. 当工资超过一定水平时，工人赚取的收入足以满足他们的财务需求，因此他们可能更愿意选择更多的闲暇时间，而不是额外的收入。 This leads them to work fewer hours, resulting in a decrease in the quantity of labor supplied despite higher wages. 这导致他们减少工作时间，尽管工资更高，但劳动供给量却减少。 The backward-bending supply of labour curve particularly applies to skilled and high-level positions. 劳动力供给曲线的后弯特别适用于技能型和高层次职位。 In these roles, workers often have higher wages, and once they reach a certain income level, the income effect becomes significant. 在这些职位上，工人的工资通常较高，一旦他们达到一定的收入水平，收入效应就会变得显著。

S1

W1 W2 W3

H1 H3 H2

Wage Rate per hour ($)

Number of hours worked

• Figure 18.3 - The backward-bending supply of labour curve

The supply of Labour

18 – Workers – Supply of Labour