Learning Theory Part 1

Learning Theories Part 1

Click on each icon for information

Constructivism

Behaviorism

Cognitivism

Neng Cha College of Education, Grand Canyon University EDU-522: Curriculum Design Theories Gretchen Oltman July 31, 2024

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is defined as making changes or modifying the environment to achieve a desired outcome from a learner (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Click on each icon below to learn more about behaviorism.

Characteristics

Major Theorist

Role of Memory

Types of Learning

How does learning occur?

Major Theorist

Edward Thorndike is the founder of behavioral psychology (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). The first American to test the learning process by focusing in on a stimulus and response relationship known as classical conditioning. He defined learning as habit formation and teaching as structuring the learning environment to achieve the desire stimulus and response relationship (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

He developed three major laws of learning.

1. Law of Readiness
2. Law of Exercise
3. Law of Effect

Click for other major theorists

Other Major Theorists

Tyler, Taba, and Bruner

They agreed with Thorndike that learning has application and therefore can be applied to other situations (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, having students compare and contrast between two books, students must use the knowledge they know about each book in order to determine what is similar and different between the two books. On the contrary, they argued that learning through problem-solving and inquiry discovery is more meaningful; thus, is more easily transferred and applied to other situation. Therefore, learning through memorization by a stimulus and response is unnecessary (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017

Characteristics

A characteristic of behaviorism is the emphasis on behavior being conditioned and altering the environment to achieve the desired outcome (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). In an educational setting, this means that the classroom can be alter to condition student behavior which leads to the desired results. For example, when forming a line, students in kindergarten practice lining up on the dots along the wall. Another characteristics of behaviorism is that learned behavior is associated with positive and negative reinforcement (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). In a classroom setting, teachers typically use rewards and consequences to achieve the desired reaction and response from students. Per Edward Thorndike's law of effect, when a student does something positive such as turning in their homework, the student receives a sticker, which in turn, will motivate the student to continue completing the homework (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Lastly, the stimulus and the learning experience must be consistent and reinforced (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). This means that repetition is key in behaviorism learning theory. In order for the desired behavior to continue, the positive reinforcement must also continue. Once it is learned that a positive reinforcement is no longer attached to the behavior, then that behavior may no longer need to be repeated. If stickers are no longer given to students when they turn in their homework, then eventually students will stop doing their homework.

Role of memory

Edward Thorndike defined learning as habit formation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Therefore, giving little attention to how the habits are maintained and retrieved for future application. Instead, it focuses and emphasizes a lot on rote learning and repetition through a stimulus and response relationship (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). In other words, a person will know what to do and how to react when presented with a stimulus. Taba made the argument that learning through repetitive practice and drilling does not strengthen memory, and Bruner made the notion that meaningful learning experiences are readily applicable to other situation versus rote learning (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). The role of memory is not a dominant factor in behavorism learning theory. It emphasize on the association of a stimulus and a response.

How does learning occurs?

Classical conditioning is one way how learning occurs in behaviorism. Learning occurs through the association of a stimulus and a response (Cherry, 2022). Using Ivan Palov's classical conditioning, a dog would salivate at the sound of a bell because whenever food was given to the dog, a bell will be sounded at the same time (Cherry, 2022). Whenever the dog heard the sound of the bell, the dog would salivate knowing that it will get food. With consant repetition of the food and the bell, the dog learned to associate the bell with food. In a school setting, this can be typically seen with the school bell. Whenever the bell rings, it means that it is time to transition to something else. The transition can be lunch, recess, lining up, or dismissal. Regardless, with consant repetition, the students come to learn that the bell means it is time to transition. Operant conditioning is another way how learning occurs in behaviorism. In operant conditioning, there are two types of responses and reinforcers. A response that is elicited, meaning that the response is direcly associated with a stimulus such as the food being directly associated with the bell. In an elicited response, the stimulus and response have been repeated so much that the response becomes automatic (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). In Palov's classical conditioning, the food which is the a primary reinforcer, has been repeated with the bell so much that at the sound of the bell, the dog automatically begin to salivate. Another response is emitted, meaning that a response is not directly associated with any particular stimulus (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). An example of an emitted response is giving a perfect attendance reward to a student, and that student repsonds with a smile, which is a secondary reinforcer. The student's smile (secondary reinforcer) occur because of the perfect attendance certificate, not due to having the perfect attendance.

Types of Learning

One type of learning is observational learning. Albert Bandura made the notion that learners learn by observing and modeling (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). This means that learners learn by imitating what they see. An example of observational learning is the use of tutorials or "do it yourself" (DIY) videos. The learner watch what is happening in the video, follows the instruction, and then mimics what they see. This leads to the learner being successful through observation. Another type of learning is Robert Gange's eight hierarchical learning. Gagne's hierarchical learning is a bottom-up approach that composes of instructions and concepts that starts from simple to complex; therefore, the first four hierarchy is behavior and the last four is cognitive (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Click the icon below for information on the 8 hierarchial learning.

Other aspects of learning in behaviorism is Edward Thorndike's three major laws of learning (click on the laws below for more information):

1. Law of Readiness
2. Law of Exercise
3. Law of Effect

8 Hierarchical Learning

Law of Effect

Suggests that whenever there is a positive outcome then the behavior that is associated with that positive outcome is likely to repeat; whereas if there is a negative outcome then the behavior associated with the negative outcome is less likely to repeat (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, in the classroom, it is common to see teachers use a reward system for good behavior. When a student shows good citizenship by helping others, that student is given an economy token. On the contrary, a student who climbs on a desk gets a time out. Using economy token, the good citizenship behavior is likely to repeat and giving a time out, the negative behavior is less likely to reoccur.

Law of Readiness

Suggests that learning is at its best when the learner is prepared, ready, and motivated to learn (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, when students are eager to learn, they become more receptive to learning than someone who is not.

Law of Exercise

Suggests that through repetitive practice and review, students are able to connect what they learn (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). In other words, the connection between a stimulus and a response become stronger. For example, a teacher may have students write their vocabulary words three times and then have them write it in a sentence.

Cognitivism

Cognitivism is a learning theory that focus on how learners learn, process information, and recall information (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Click on each icon below to learn more about cognitivism.

Characteristics

Major Theorist

Role of Memory

Types of Learning

How does learning occur?

Major Theorist

Jean Piaget is a Swiss psychologist that conducted 25 years of research on the theory of cognitive developmental stages (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). He described cognitive development in four stages from birth to maturity (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017): 1. Sensorimotor 2. Preoperational 3. Concrete operations 4. Formal operations Jean Piaget believes that the stages of cognitive development of a person occur in hierarchy; however, the rate at which a person learn can vary due to heredity and environmental factors (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Piaget came up with three cognitive processes (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017): 1. Assimilation 2. Accommodation 3. Equilibration

Click for other major theorists

Other Major Theorists

Tyler, Taba, Bruner, and Kohlberg

Piaget's research on cognitive development set the stage for Tyler, Taba, Bruner, and Kohlberg. Tyler suggest that learning experiences should be continuous, sequential, and integrated (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Meaning that the skills and concepts taught in a curriculum should be ongoing in a specific structure that is progressive, and the components of the curriculum should be taught together. Like Tyler, Bruner stated that learning should be spiral and that information learned in a specific subject can also be applied to another subject (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Taba made the notion that instruction should be age appropriate, while Kohlberg said that depending on the age of the person will determine the moral growth as well (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017

Characteristics

Cognitive learning theory is an investigation into the human brain and the mind, such as how it learns, receives, store, and retrieves information (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Like a computer, that uses a processor (mind) and a hardrive (brain), cognitive learning theory wants to know how information is process and kept for later use. Theorist like Montessori and Piaget made the notion that there is a hierachy of cognitive developmental stages and children grow and learn at different rates, even if they are of the same age (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, observing a kindergarten class working on an art project that requires cutting, it can be seen that all students are equivalent in age, but yet some have difficultly with holding the scissor while others are more coordinated and are able to hold the scissor properly. The enviornment is also a factor into how a person learn, what they experience, and the types of exposure they have. Learning can occur due to the enviornment and the enivornment can be modify to provide new learning (Orntsein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, when defining the vocabulary word, "wave", students in California who have experience and have been expose to the beach may define it as water curling and breaking on the shore versus students in Kentucky may define "wave" as a surface wave that is blown accross tall grass. Regardless of their location, students should be able to use that information and apply to other settings.

Role of Memory

Cognitive learning theory is broken into two types of memory. The first type is short-term memory which typically have a duration of 30 seconds. Within the 30 seconds, a person decides if the information presented are important or not. Non-important information are discarded, whereas important information are moved into a working memory (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, a mechanic knowing where they placed their screwdriver may be considered a short-term memory. If the mechanic deem the screwdriver as non-important, the the location of the screwdriver is possibly forgotten. On the contrary, if the screwdriver is important, then the whereabouts of the screwdriver is then moved into the working memory. Working memory is part of the short-term memory in that it is limited; therefore, it is important to note that the information in the working memory is being used immediately with regards to the situation. Unlike short-term memory, working memory can be extended depending on how the information is presented and chunked into groups (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). The second type of memory is long-term memory which works with two types of information, semantic and procedural. Semantic memory involves factual information of ideas, concepts, and general knowledge whether if it has do with personal or professional life experiences (Perera, 2023). Knowing what was served at breakfast or naming the fifty states of America is an example of semantic memory. Procedural memory is information that deals with recollection of how to do things (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, driving is now a procedure that is automatically remembered.

How does learning occurs?

In cognitivism, learning occurs through observation and listening which was emphasized by Montessoir. The more a learner watch and listen the more they will be mentally developed (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). She believed that a learner's sensory is the first phase for learning and development. The learning envrionment is also a factor of how learning occurs. Per Montessori, sensory impression from the envrionment is vital as learners learn through their interaction within their envrionment (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, the library is a quiet place that allows for learners to focus, thus affecting how they learn. Theorist like Piaget made the notion that there are three basic cognitive processes for learning (click on the cognitive processes below for more information).

1. Assimilation
2. Accommodation
3. Equilibration

Cognitive Processes

Assimilation

Assimilation is the process in which an individual integrate new information into existing information (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Schemas through assimilation does not change how an individual view the world (Cherry, 2024). When an individual comes across something new, the information is processed and is related to something that is familiar but their interpretation of the information is the same. For example, a child has an exisiting schema of an apple which is red and round. When the child encounters a tomato, the child calls it an apple. This means that the child has taken the new information which is seeing the tomato and made the relation to the exisiting information of the apple, which is red and round. Although the tomato is new information, the child's schema did not change. The child thinks that the tomato is an apple because it is red and round like an apple.

Accommodation

Equilibration

Accommodation is the process in which an individual takes in new information but changes or adapt the information to fit the circumstance of a situation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Schemas through accomodation can change as new perspective is developed (Cherry, 2024). For instance, the child can now distinguish between the apple and the tomato. Accommodation allows for the child to learn that not all red and round fruits or vegetables are apples and therefore allowing the child to develop new schemas about red and round fruits or vegetables.

Equilibration is the process in which an individual balances both assimilation and accomodation, balancing the exisiting information acquired already with information that that is being learned (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Individuals modify their existing schemas or develop new ones to acquire new understanding (Cherry, 2024). For example, an English Learner (EL) student learning the English alphabet which is the same or similar to the alphabet in their native language such as the alphabet of English and Spanish. The student is able to assimilate and accomodate the information for learning the English alphabet.

Types of learning

Jean Piaget conducted the most comprehensive research on cognitive learning theory. He spent 25 years of research and developed four stages of learning from birth to maturity (Orenstein & Hunkins, 2017). Click the four stages below for information.

1. Sensorimotor stage
2. Preoperational stage
3. Concrete Operations stage
4. Formal operations stage

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

Formal operations Stage: The stage from 11 and on up. At this stage, the learner is able to think more abstractly and understand more complicated ideas and concepts (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). They can use logical thinking to problem-solving even if they have not had any prior knowledge of the issue. For example, a learner observe different bird nesting behaviors in their hometown and then making the conclusion that birds in their hometown have similar and different nesting behavior.

Preoperatonal Stage: The stage from 2 to 7 years old. During this stage, the child learned that objects have meaning such as a spoon is for eating (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). The child also learned how to associate and group objects in categories so long as the child was given opportunties to learn the concept before (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example grouping apples and oranges as fruits.

Concrete operations Stage: The stage from 7 to 11 years old. During this stage, the child is able to think more logically about physical objects (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). They understand that physical objects can be manipulated into different forms and reverse back into its original form. For example, students playing with playdough can change the playdough into a square, then a ciricle, then back into a square again.

Sensorimotor Stage: The stage from birth to 2 years old. During this stage, the child is learning about their envrionment through the use of their senses and motor skills such as seeing, touching, listening, tasting, and smelling (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Children also begin to understand that even when objects are out of sight, the object still exist (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Constructivism

Constructivism is a learning theory that focus on how the individual internalize information, use existing knowledge to build on other knowledge, and reshape information to understand concepts (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Click on each icon below to learn more about constructivism.

Characteristics

Major Theorist

Role of Memory

Types of Learning

How does learning occur?

Major Theorist

According to Lev Vygotsky, a learner's development is based on a sociogenetic process that is determined by a learner's interaction with the enrionvment (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). The culture, and the changes in the environment whether natural or artificial, is a factor to the development of the learner (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Learning is a social activity, and therefore the environment in which individuals are expose to and interact with will affect how they think. Lev Vygotsky came up with the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which determines the ability a learner can do independently, and at which point a learner requires guidance to be successful (Mcleod, 2024).

Click for other major theorists

Other Major Theorists

John Dewey

John Dewey, in constructivism learning theory, made the notion that learning should be continuous, and that what is learned already can be generalized and applied to other subject area or situations (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017

Characteristics

In constructivism, the learner is the core focus in which the learner takes an active role in creating meaning and understanding through interaction from the surrounding envrionment (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). It is the learner who interalize the information and restucture it to build meaning and connections to the concept of the subject matter and apply it to other situations. For example, an individual who learns mathematical concepts such as multiplication, division, addition, and subtraction, can apply those learned math concepts to develop a monthly budget. Rather than just passively accepting information and copying what others do, the learner adopts the new knowledge, incorporate it with existing knowledge, and modified it to be used and applied to another situation. Learning is at its best when an individual is conscious about the process and know that they are constructing and applying new knowledge to existing knowledge to build understanding (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

Role of Memory

An area of memory in regards to constructivism is metacognition. Metacognition is the process in which an individual is consciously aware of where to find and use knowledge. Unlike cognitivism that addresses the recall and retrieval of information, constructivism addresses the use of pre-exisiting knowledge, and existing environment to build on other knowledge and apply is to a situation (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). For example, in mathematics, a student may utilize the glossary to find the meaning of content vocabulary words like quotient or Commutative Property.

How does learning occurs?

As emphasized by Vygotsky, learning occur through the interaction with the environment, peers, and culture (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Although the envrionment can be reshaped whether naturally or artifically, learners have natural tools at their disposal that supports learning. Language, counting systems, art, drawings, and mnemonic (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Language by far is the primary tool for all learners, it is how learners communicate, think, process and construct information (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Learning is active and a construction of new knowledge with exisiting knowledge. Individuals learn through interaction among peers and their engagement with the envrionment which leads to meaningful knowledge. For example, in a math lesson, students are taught that a set of parallel lines are lines on a same plane that never intersect. Students are then asked to work with a partner to draw parallel lines to demonstrate their understanding. To further build this concepts, students are asked to identify parallel lines on the playgrounds such as lines on a basketball court. Vygotsky also suggested that learning occur within the zone of proximal development (ZPD). Click on the zone of proximal (ZPD) to learn more.

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The zone of proximal development refers to what a learner can do independently, and the area in which a learner needs guidance to learn (Mcleod, 2024). The ZPD is the area that learners are able to learn and thrive best because the task within the ZPD is not too easy nor is it too hard. Rather the task is challenging enough where instruction is beneficial and learners can succeed with some guidance (Mcleod, 2024). For example, in a STEM challenge, students are task to build the tallest free standing tower out of copy papers. Students can independently cut and tape papers together, but within the ZPD, some guidance provided might be to encourage students to think about the height and width of tall towers they have seen.

Types of learning

Scaffolding is one type of learning in constructivism. It is the process in which the learner is receiving as little help as possible from the teacher (Mcleod, 2024). Using scaffolding the teacher provides the learners with the necessary tools and activities, but it is the learners responsibility to make the attempt to solve the task. Using the zone of proximal development, when the learner is in need of assistant is when the teacher provide some support. However, the type of support given depends on the needs. Support can be general such as encouragement, specific such as giving a direction, or modeling by demonstrating (Mcleod, 2024). The goal in scaffolding is to allow the learners to explore and learn on their own as much as possible and only giving support when necessary. The teacher also have full control of the materials and only gives additional materials to support the learner when needed (Mcleod, 2024). Discovery learning is another type of learning in constructivism. The learning process is centered on the learner. The learner is not presented with the final product of the subject or the information (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017). Rather, the learner is on a self-exploration to discover and find information for understanding of a concept. The learner is to make inquiries and problem-solve by making inferences, comparing and contrasting. Thus, learners discover connections among data which provides new experiences and understanding (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2017).

References:

Cherry, K. (2022). What is behaviorism? Verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/behavioral-psychology-4157183 Cherry, K. (2024). How assimilation in psychology helps you. Verywell mind. https://www.verywellmind.com/what-is-assimilation-2794821 Mcleod, S. (2024). Vygotsky's zone of proximal development and scaffolding theory. Simply psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/zone-of-proximal-development.html Ornstein, C. A., & Hunkins, F. P. (2017) Psychological foundations of curriculum. Curriculum: Foundations, Principles, and Issues. (7th ed.). Boston: Pearson. https://bibliu.com/app/#/view/books/9780134058801/epub/OPS/xhtml/fileP7000499583000000000000000000DA9.html#page_94 Perera A. (2023). Semantic memory in psychology. Simply Psychology. https://www.simplypsychology.org/semantic-memory.html