ACTIVIDAD 1. HISTORIA, CULTURA Y SOCIEDAD INGLESA

The Evolution of the English Language, Culture, and Society of the English-Speaking Countries

ACTIVITY 1

Nazareh Riballo GonzálezJesús Ramón Martín DuránAna García CoyRaquel María Cabrera Brito

Index

early modern english

early english

? - 450 A.D

1450-1750

old english

modern english

450 - 1066

1750 - 2020

Bibliography

middle english

1066-1500

LEARNING EXPERIENCE

EARLY ENGLISH

Early English

AN INTRODUCTION TO PREHISTORIC ENGLAND (BEFORE AD 43)

Prehistory is the time before written records. It’s the period of human history we know the least about, but it’s also the longest by far. The earliest known humans arrived in these lands around 900,000 years ago. Prehistory stretches from then until the Roman invasion in AD 43. Over this time, these lands underwent huge climactic, societal, political, technological and geological changes. Along with artefacts discovered by archaeologists, the henges, hillforts and burial sites still visible in the landscape today give us fascinating glimpses into the lives of the people of prehistoric England.

THE BRONZE AGE

Early English

The Bronze Age was a time in early human history when people first began to use tools made of bronze. Bronze is a hard, yellowish alloy, or mixture of metals. People make it by melting copper and tin together. The Bronze Age began in some places about 5,000 years ago. It began later in other places. Learning how to use bronze led to advances in many areas of human life.

IRON AGE (800 BC–AD 50)

Early English

They began to make weapons and tools out of iron. Evidence of ritual offerings of military equipment and fine metalwork suggest the dominance of a warrior aristocracy and the emergence of tribal territories. The late Iron Age saw the first coinage and the emergence of tribal centres such as Lexden Earthworks, Essex, and Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications, North Yorkshire. And it’s during this period that Britain came into contact with the Roman world, as at Silchester, Hampshire. And with this contact came the first written records of life on the island, from Greeks and Romans. The most famous notes were made by Julius Caesar, who raided Britain in 55–54 BC. Accounts from the period mention chariot warfare and religious leaders called Druids, who supposedly worshipped in oak groves and performed sacrifices. Nearly a hundred years after Caesar’s raids, the emperor Claudius ordered a full scale invasion – and this time the Romans intended to stay.

ROMAN BRITAIN

Early English

Roman Britain (Britannia) was the part of Great Britain in the Roman Empire from AD 43 to 409 or 410. The first invasion was led by Julius Caesar, in the days of the Roman Republic. He defeated the dominant Catuvellauni tribe in 54 BC near Wheathampstead in Hertfordshire. Their capital was taken over by the Romans. Trouble in Gaul (mainly modern France & Belgium) prevented Caesar from staying in Britain. The full conquest of Britain was delayed for almost a century.

Check the video!

Early English

In 43 AD, the Emperor Claudius sent an invasion force, led by Aulus Plautius, a distinguished senator. He was given four legions, totalling about 20,000 men, plus about the same number of helpers The legions were:

• Legio II Augusta
• Legio IX Hispana
• Legio XIV Gemina
• Legio XX Valeria Victrix

The II Augusta was commanded by the future emperor Vespasian. The other three legions were also led by high-ranking men.

Early English

WHO IS CLAUDIUS?

Claudius (full name Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) was the fourth Roman emperor from 41 to 54 A.D. Best know for the successful expansion of Rome into Britain and parts of Africa and the Middle East, Claudius was an accomplished leader who brought forth improvements to the empire's judicial system, passed laws protecting enslaved workers, extended Roman citizenship and gave citizens more rights.

Early English

LEARNING EXPERIENCE

The invasion was one of the most significant events in British history. After the revolt of Boudica there was usually peace. Roman legions left in 410 AD after almost four centuries, and the administration of the country was taken over by prominent local chieftains. This was known as Sub-Roman Britain, with a Romano-British culture and the people may have used a Latin-based language. It lasted for about two centuries but gave way to an increasingly Anglo-Saxon England by the start of the seventh century.

Early English

WHO IS BOUDICCA?

Check the video!

LEARNING EXPERIENCE

OLD ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

Old English

The Old English language, often called Anglo-Saxon, was spoken in England from 450 AD to 1100 AD. It was spoken by the Anglo-Saxons who came to England from what is now Germany and Denmark. Old English is very different from Modern English; it has many more Germanic words. It was rarely written down, and when written it was in runes. This is an alphabet completely different from the Latin alphabet used for English today. Old English grammar is difficult, and close to Old German. Latin was used by churchmen like the venerable Bede. Old English slowly turned into Middle English after the Norman Conquest of 1066. Beowulf is written in Old English in an alphabetic script.

RUNES

Old English

Runes, or the runic alphabet, are an ancient writing system, used by the Germanic peoples of Northern Europe, Britain and Scandinavia. There are actually numerous forms of runic alphabets, all of which are made up of a series of angular characters formed mostly of straight, vertical lines - likely because they were usually carved into wood or stone. Not much is known about the history of the runic alphabet. We do know that it appeared relatively late in the development of languages, and that it was primarily used between approximately the 1st and 17th centuries C.E. Evidence of its use has been found in a number of places, from the Balkans to Iceland.

ANGLO-SAXON CHARACTERISTIC

Old English

Eventually the name Anglo-Saxon came to be used for all people living in England, as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes mixed with other invaders and the original Britons. The Anglo-Saxons spoke an early form of English that is now called Old English. They lived in houses made of wood, thatch (straw), and twigs woven together and covered with mud or clay. When the mud or clay hardened it made a solid roof or wall. Anglo-Saxons fed themselves by farming. They harvested grains, fruits, and vegetables and raised livestock. Anglo-Saxon rule ended in 1066. In that year England was conquered by the French forces of William, duke of Normandy, during what is known as the Norman Conquest.

BEOWULF (700-750)

Old English

Beowulf is an Old English heroic epic poem. It is not known who wrote it, and there is no agreement as to when it was written. Estimates for the date range from AD 608 right through to AD 1000, and there is no consensus. The poem has only one manuscript source, written about 1010. Beowulf is 3182 lines long. Tolkien describes and illustrates many of the features of Old English poetry in his 1940 essay On translating Beowulf. The protagonist of the poem is Beowulf. In the poem, Beowulf fights three monsters: Grendel and Grendel's mother, and later in his life an unnamed dragon..

BEOWULF (700-750)

Old English

Vikings (800-1066)

Old English

To cover the history of Vikings in England, we need to look back into history. As far back as the 8th century. During the 700s, Norsemen from Scandinavia travelled across the North Sea to Great Britain and Ireland, at first to raid it for plunder, slaves and other goods, but in time, they chose to settle, trade and grow a community there. Those who came to England and the British Isles from Scandinavian lands were generally referred to as Vikings.

Who were the Vikings?

Old English

Vikings, also known as Norsemen, or Northmen, were members of the Scandinavian warrior culture who sailed, raided and colonized wide areas of Europe from the 6th to 12th century. The influence of this culture has been felt from Canada to the Middle East. These Danish, Norwegian and Swedish warriors were likely prompted to undertake their raids by a combination of factors, ranging from overpopulation at home, like of arable land, and the relative helplessness of victims abroad.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

MIDDLE ENGLISH

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Introduction

The Middle English period, from approximately 1150 to 1500 AD, is a transformative era following the Norman Conquest of England in 1066. This era is marked by significant changes in the English language, introducing a wealth of Norman French vocabulary that reshaped both the language and the cultural landscape. Socially, the period established the feudal system and saw the rise of a merchant class, influencing England's economic and social structures. Culturally, it was a vibrant time for literature, exemplified by Geoffrey Chaucer's "The Canterbury Tales," which reflects the era's language and humor. Key historical events, including the signing of the Magna Carta and the Hundred Years' War, significantly influenced England's political landscape and national identity, setting the stage for modern democratic and legal principles. The Middle English period thus serves as a crucial bridge between medieval and modern England, laying the groundwork for future transformations.

Middle English Timeline

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

1387-1400: Geoffrey Chaucer writes "The Canterbury Tales".

1066: Norman Conquest of England

Beginning of Norman influence on English culture and language.

Consolidation of the London dialect as the standard form of Middle English.

1150-1250: Emergence of Middle English

1476: William Caxton establishes the first printing press in England.

Development of various regional dialects.

Boost to the standardization of English through the printing of books, including works by Chaucer.

1348-1350: The Black Death

Significant demographic and social impact, leading to increased importance of English due to the decline of Norman French speakers.

1485: Beginning of the Tudor era with Henry VII.

Gradual transition towards Early Modern English.

1362: Statue of Pleading

English established as the language of the courts, replacing French.

GENEALOGICAL TREE OF LITERARY FIGURES DURING THE MIDDLE ENGLISH PERIOD

Geoffrey Chaucer

c. 1343-1400

Known as the "Father of English literature." Famous for writing "The Canterbury Tales."

William Langland

c. 1332-c. 1386

Contemporary of Chaucer, known for "Piers Plowman," a Middle English allegorical narrative of a quest for true Christian life.

c. 1330-1408

John Gower

Another contemporary of Chaucer. Known for his works "Confessio Amantis," "Vox Clamantis," and "Mirour de l'Omme."

1342-c. 1416

Julian of Norwich

An English anchoress and an important Christian mystic and theologian. Famous for "Revelations of Divine Love."

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Language evolution

Literary works

Dialects

Middle English arose from the dialects of Old English influenced heavily by Norman French. This period in the English language is marked by extensive borrowing of vocabulary from Norman French.

Geoffrey Chaucer is the most notable literary figure from this period. His work, "The Canterbury Tales", is a cornerstone of English literature and was written in the London dialect of Middle English.

Various dialects existed across England, but the London dialect, used by Chaucer, became increasingly influential due to London's rising political and economical power.

Society and culture

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Feudal system

The social structure was predominantly feudal, with a clear hierarchy from the king down the peasants and serfs.

Religious influence

The Church was a central institution, with Latin as its language, influencing education, politics, and daily life. However, there was a gradual shift to using English in religious contexts towards the end of this period.

Notable figures

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Geoffrey Chaucer

Often called "The Father of English Literature", Chaucer's works provide insights into the societal norms and human conditions of his time.His narrative style and the use of vernacular democratized literature, making it accesible to the broader English-speaking population.

William Caxton

Introduced the printing press to England in 1476, significantly influencing the standarization of the English language.Caxton not only printed works in English, but also edited and standarixed them, which helped to shape the form of the English language as we know it today.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Languages and dialects

The linguistic landscape of England underwent profound changes from the reign of William I (the Conqueror) onward, largely influenced by the Norman Conquest of 1066. This period saw a fascinating interplay of languages and dialects, culminating in the development of Middle English. Here's a breakdown of the key linguistic developments:

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Norman French

Old English

After William the Conqueror, Norman French became the language of the ruling class and the court. This introduction had a profound and lasting impact on the English language, particularly in terms of vocabulary and legal terms. Norman French was not just a language of administration but also of high culture and literature.

Prior to the Norman Conquest, the dominant language spoken by the Anglo-Saxons in England was Old English. This Germanic language was rich in dialects, with four main dialects being Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, and Kentish.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Middle English Emergence

As the centuries progressed, particularly from the 12th to the 14th century, the use of French among the ruling classes began to decline. This was partly due to the loss of Normandy by the English monarchy in 1204 and the gradual integration and assimilation of the Normans into English society. By the 14th century, English had re-established itself as the language of the court and administration.

Middle English

This form of English, which evolved from Old English post-conquest, was heavily influenced by Norman French. Middle English had various dialects, reflecting the regional diversities that had existed in Old English but now also influenced by the Norman ruling class. The most influential of these dialects was the London dialect, which became increasingly standard due to the city's rising political and economic power.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Literary Contributions

Lingua Franca

Legacy

During this period, Latin continued to be used as a lingua franca, especially in religious contexts and scholarly works. It was the primary language of the Church and academia, which maintained Latin’s status across Europe despite the vernacular changes.

The impact of Norman French on English was immense, particularly in vocabulary. An estimated 45% of English words have a French origin, most of which came from this period. This period also laid the groundwork for the further development of English into Modern English, as the standardization of spelling and grammar began to take shape toward the end of the Middle English period.

The linguistic changes were also reflected in the literature of the time. Writers like Geoffrey Chaucer, who wrote "The Canterbury Tales," used Middle English and showcased the language's versatility and richness. Chaucer's works not only reflect the dialect of London but also include a mix of other regional dialects, demonstrating the linguistic diversity of his time.

NORMAN DYNASTY GENEALOGICAL TREE

WILLIAM I "THE CONQUEROR" (1066-1087)

Henry "Beauclerck (1100-1135)

Robert Curthose, Duke of Normandy

William II "Rufus" (1087-1100)

Matilda

Henry II (Plantagenet King starting 1154)

PLANTAGENET DYNASTY GENEALOGICAL TREE

HENRY II (1154-1189)

John Lackland (1199-1216)

Geoffrey II, Duke of Brittany

Henry, the Young King (co-ruler, died before Henry II)

William IX, Count of Poitiers (Died young)

Richard I "the Lionheart" (1189-1199)

Henry III (1216-1272)

Edward "Longshanks" (1272-1303)

PLANTAGENET DYNASTY GENEALOGICAL TREE

EDWARD II (1307-1327)

Edward III (1327-1377)

Richard II (1377-1399)

Edward, the Black Prince (died before Edward III)

Other children

Henry IV (1399-1423)

PLANTAGENET DYNASTY GENEALOGICAL TREE

Henry V (1413-1422)

HenryVI (1422-61, 1470-71

Edward IV (1461-70, 1471-83)

Edward V (April-June 1483)

Richard III (1483-1485)

SUMMARY OF THE HOUSE OF THE PLANTAGENET'S INFLUENCE

The House of Plantagenet was instrumental in shaping medieval England Through significant, political, legal and cultural advancements.

Political and Military Achievements: They expanded English territories, notably through Edward I's conquest of Wales and the efforts of Henry III and Henry V during the Hundred Year's War. These expansions significantly influenced Europe's medieval political landscape.

Legal and administrative Reforms: The Plantagenets established strong central government and laid the foundations of the common law system, highlighted by Henry II's legal reforms, which introduced trial by jury. King John's signing of the Magna Carta in 1215 further established that the king was subject to law, influencing the development of democratic principles worldwide.

Cultural Impact: There were significant patrons of the arts,contributing to the flourishing of Gothic architecture and the arts. Under their rule, particularly from Chaucer's time, English emerged as a court language, marking the beginning of its use in signigicant literary works.

Economic Development:The era saw the growth of the wool trade, England's foremost medieval industry, boosting the economy and supporting military campaigns.

OVERVIEW OF SOME KEY FIGURES FROM THE PLANTAGENET DYNASTY

Richard I "the Lionheart" (1189-1199)

Henry II (1154-1189)

John "Lackland" (1199-1216)

Henry III

Henry II, the first Plantagenet king, was known for his role in developing the legal system in England, including the establishment of common law and the jury system. His reign was also marked by conflicts with Thomas Becket and his own sons, which led to civil wars.

Henry III's long reign was marked by a series of political struggles with his barons, leading to the Second Barons' War. His devotion to arts, and especially to the Gothic architecture of Westminster Abbey, left a significant cultural impact.

King John is often remembered for his defeat by the French and rebellious barons, which led to the signing of the Magna Carta in 1215. This document is crucial as it limited the powers of the king for the first time and laid the foundation for modern democracy.

Richard I is famous for his role in the Third Crusade, where he earned a reputation as a great military leader. Despite spending much of his reign abroad, his leadership during the Crusades left a lasting legacy on the perception of kingship in medieval Europe.

+info

+info

+info

+info

SOME KEY FIGURES FROM THE PLANTAGENET DYNASTY

Edward i "Longshanks"

Edward II (1307-1327)

Edward III (1327-1377)

Richard II (1377-1399)

The grandson of Edward III, Richard II's reign was marked by internal strife and conflict with the English nobility, which led to his eventual deposition by Henry Bolingbroke (Henry IV). His rule is captured dramatically in Shakespeare's play "Richard II."

Edward III's reign marked the start of the Hundred Years' War against France, which established England as one of the most formidable military powers in Europe. He also presided over significant developments in English legislature and fostered a flourishing of arts and culture, including the chivalric order of the Garter.

Edward I was known for his ambitious military campaigns, including the conquest of Wales and attempts to subjugate Scotland, famously battling William Wallace and later Robert the Bruce. His legal reforms further established Parliament's role in governance.

Edward II's reign was plagued by military defeats, notably at Bannockburn against the Scots, and internal conflicts with the nobility, which eventually led to his deposition and murder. His reliance on favorites like Piers Gaveston created significant political instability.

+info

+info

+info

+info

+info

SOME KEY FIGURES FROM THE EVOLUTION OF THE PLANTAGENET HOUSE

Henry VI (1422-1461, 1470-1471)

Edward IV (1461-1470, 1471-1473)

Henry IV (1399-1413)

Henry V (1313-1322)

Henry V, son of Henry IV, is best known for his military successes during the Hundred Years' War, notably his victory at the Battle of Agincourt in 1415. This win made him a hero in England and advanced his claim to the French throne, although he died suddenly at a young age, leaving the throne to his infant son, Henry VI.

Henry IV, the first king of the House of Lancaster (a branch of the Plantagenets), came to power by deposing his cousin Richard II. His reign was marred by revolts and ill health, but he managed to stabilize the crown after the turmoil of Richard's rule.

Henry VI became king as an infant after his father's death. His reign saw the loss of nearly all English territories in France and was marred by mental instability and weak leadership, which contributed to the Wars of the Roses, a series of civil wars for control of the throne of England.

Edward IV of the House of York took the throne after defeating Henry VI, marking the shift in power during the Wars of the Roses. His reign was interrupted briefly when Henry VI was restored to the throne, but Edward regained power until his death.

+info

+info

+info

+info

SOME KEY FIGURES FROM THE EVOLUTION OF PLANTAGENET HOUSE

Edward V (April-June 1483)

Richard III (1483-1485)

Henry VII (1485-1509)

Henry VIII (1509-1547)

Henry VIII, son of Henry VII, is one of the most famous monarchs in English history, known for his six marriages and his significant role in the separation of the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. His reign saw the beginning of the English Reformation, which brought about religious and political transformations that had a lasting impact on England.

Henry VII, also known as Henry Tudor, defeated Richard III to establish the Tudor dynasty. His reign ended the civil strife of the Wars of the Roses, strengthened the monarchy, and restored political stability. He married Elizabeth of York, uniting the houses of Lancaster and York.

Edward V was one of the "Princes in the Tower"; his reign lasted only a few months before he and his brother disappeared under mysterious circumstances. Their uncle, Richard III, assumed the throne.

Richard III, the last king of the Plantagenet dynasty, ruled for two years before he was defeated by Henry Tudor at the Battle of Bosworth Field. His death marked the end of the Wars of the Roses and the beginning of Tudor rule.

+info

+info

+info

+info

HISTORY, CULTUTURE AND SOCIETY

The Black Death (1347-1351)

Impact on Europe This pandemic decimated Europe’s population, eliminating about one-third to one-half, with an estimated 25 million deaths in Europe and up to 200 million globally. Symptoms and Transmission Caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis and transmitted by flea bites, the plague’s symptoms included fevers, chills, vomiting, aches, and the appearance of painful swellings known as buboes.

Overview The Black Death, also known as the Bubonic Plague, was a devastating pandemic that struck Europe between 1347 and 1351, with recurrent outbreaks thereafter. Originating in Asia, the disease spread via trade routes and was carried by rats on ships, reaching all corners of Europe.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

Societal Changes

The significant loss of life led to labor shortages, higher wages, and increased social mobility, which challenged and eventually led to the weakening of the feudal system.

Cultural Impact

The plague deeply influenced culture; art turned to somber themes of death, and literature, like Boccaccio's "The Decameron," explored human nature in times of disaster. The Church’s inability to prevent the plague led to diminished authority.

Long-term effects

The Black Death prompted advances in medical science and public health and indirectly fostered the development of a more modern economic system in Europe due to the social changes it spurred. This brief overview encapsulates the Black Death’s profound and lasting impacts on 14th-century Europe, reshaping its demographics, economy, culture, and health systems.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

The Hundred Years' War (1337-1453) was a series of conflicts fought between England and France over claims to the French throne, significantly impacting the Middle English period. Initiated under the reign of Edward III, the war saw several phases of English and French victories, profoundly affecting both nations' economies, societies, and the course of the war itself.

Hundred Years' War

HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON MODERN LIFE

TV Series and Movies: Game of Thrones

Clothing: The Cape

Historical Origin: Inspired by the Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic conflicts in medieval England for control of the throne. Current Influence: "Game of Thrones" is one of the most influential TV series of the past decade, with its political plots and power struggles directly inspired by medieval historical events, demonstrating how past conflicts can be reinterpreted into modern narratives.

Historical Origin: During the Middle Ages, both men and women wore capes as an essential part of their attire, primarily for protection against the weather. Current Influence: Capes remain popular in modern fashion, especially in fall and winter collections and in haute couture. They are also a distinctive element in superhero costumes, such as Superman or Dracula, reflecting their symbolism of power and mystery.

HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON MODERN LIFE

Daily Customs: The Handshake

Food: Bread

Historical Origin: Bread has been a staple food since ancient times, but in the Middle Ages, the introduction of wind and water mills significantly improved its production Current Influence: Bread continues to be fundamental in many global diets and has evolved into countless varieties. Each culture has adapted types and shapes of bread that reflect their own culinary histories.

Historical Origin: Although it has older roots, during the Middle Ages, it was used to show that one came in peace and was not carrying a weapon. Current Influence: Although challenged by the recent pandemic, the handshake remains a common form of greeting in many cultures, symbolizing respect and agreement.

HISTORICAL INFLUENCES ON MODERN LIFE

Music: The Influence of Choral Music

Historical Origin: Choral music has its roots in medieval and Renaissance liturgical music, particularly in compositions developed in European churches and cathedrals. Current Influence: Choral music continues to be a central part of many forms of modern classical and liturgical music, and its techniques and harmonies have influenced broader musical genres.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

The Role of Religion

During the Middle English period, religion was a dominant force in everyday life and governance. The Church was not only a spiritual authority but also a significant political power, influencing laws and societal norms. Major religious institutions were landowners and played a crucial role in education and charity. The period saw various religious movements and the early seeds of dissent against the Catholic Church’s practices, setting the stage for later reforms.

The Bible

In the Middle English period, the Bible was primarily available in Latin and not accessible to the layperson, remaining under the strict control of the Church. It was the central religious text guiding all aspects of life and spirituality. Efforts to translate the Bible into the vernacular, which would make it accessible to the general population, were met with resistance and were a contributing factor to the Reformation.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

The Inquisition

The Inquisition, primarily associated with the Spanish and the Roman Catholic Church’s efforts to enforce orthodoxy, didn't directly impact England during the Middle English period as it did in later years and in other parts of Europe. However, the roots of religious conformity and persecution began to take hold during this time.

HISTORY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

The Gospels

The Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament, were central texts in Christian belief, depicting the life and teachings of Jesus Christ. During the Middle English period, these texts were pivotal in worship and were read only in Latin by the clergy, which maintained the Church’s control over religious teachings.

+info

HISTORY, SOCIETY AND CULTURE

Canterbury Tales

"The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer is one of the most important literary works of the Middle English period. Written in the late 14th century, it is a collection of stories told by a group of pilgrims traveling to Canterbury Cathedral. The tales offer a vivid portrayal of the English society of the time, showcasing a range of characters from different classes and backgrounds.

+info

Books on Middle English, History, and Literature

"A History of the English Language" by Albert C. Baugh and Thomas Cable

"The Plantagenets: The Warrior Kings and Queens Who Made England" by Dan Jones

"The Canterbury Tales" by Geoffrey Chaucer, edited by A. C. Cawley

"The Oxford History of Medieval England" edited by Nigel Saul

"The English and their History" by Robert Tombs

Books on Middle English, History, and Literature

"The Formation of English Common Law: Law and Society in England from the Norman Conquest to Magna Carta" by John Hudson

"Medieval England: A Social History and Archaeology from the Conquest to 1600 A.D." by Colin Platt

"Language and Society in the Middle Ages" edited by Jocelyn Wogan-Browne et al.

Academic Journals

Speculum: A Journal of Medieval Studies

10

The Journal of English and Germanic Philology

Resources for primary children

Books

"Who Were the Vikings?" by Jane Chisholm and Struan Reid

"The Usborne Book of Castles" by Lesley Sims and Jane Chisholm

Comics

"Horrible Histories: Measly Middle Ages" by Terry Deary and Martin Brown

Movies and Tv shows

"Merlin" (TV) show)

"Dragons: Riders of Berk"

Resources for primary children

"Robin Hood" (Disney, 1973)

Games and Applications

"The Oregon Trail: American Settler" (Application)

"Castle Builders" (Application)

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

EARLY MODERN ENGLISH

INTRODUCTION

Early Modern English, spanning from the late 15th to the late 17th century, marks a crucial phase in the evolution of the English language. It was characterized by significant linguistic changes such as the Great Vowel Shift, the standardization of grammar and spelling, and the enrichment of vocabulary influenced by the Renaissance. The introduction of the printing press facilitated the dissemination of written English, while colonial expansion led to the development of regional dialects. Overall, Early Modern English laid the foundation for modern English as we know it today, shaping its structure, vocabulary, and literary expression.

SOCIAL CONTEXT

Cultural Renaissance

The Early Modern period witnessed a cultural renaissance in England, marked by a flourishing of literature, art, and theater. Writers like William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser produced some of their most celebrated works during this time, contributing to the golden age of English literature. The emergence of the printing press facilitated the dissemination of knowledge and ideas, leading to increased literacy rates and the proliferation of printed materials.

Religious Reformation

The Reformation had a profound impact on English society during the Early Modern period. The English Reformation, initiated by King Henry VIII's break with the Roman Catholic Church, led to the establishment of the Church of England as the country's official church. Subsequent monarchs, including Elizabeth I, sought to establish religious stability through a moderate religious settlement, which aimed to reconcile Catholic and Protestant factions.

SOCIAL CONTEXT

Political Turmoil

The Early Modern period was marked by political turmoil and upheaval, including civil wars, rebellions, and power struggles. The Wars of the Roses, a series of dynastic conflicts between the House of Lancaster and the House of York, culminated in the establishment of the Tudor dynasty with the ascent of Henry VII to the throne. The Tudor monarchs, particularly Henry VIII and Elizabeth I, played pivotal roles in shaping England's political landscape and asserting royal authority.

Colonial Expansion

The Early Modern period also witnessed the beginning of England's colonial expansion, with the establishment of colonies in North America, the Caribbean, and other regions. Exploration and colonization brought England into contact with new cultures and civilizations, leading to the exchange of goods, ideas, and people. The growth of trade and commerce contributed to England's economic prosperity and global influence.

NOTABLE FIGURES

Queen Elisabeth I

Queen Elizabeth I, famously known as the Virgin Queen, governed England and Ireland from 1558 to 1603, presiding over a period marked by profound religious and cultural stability. Her reign introduced the Elizabethan Religious Settlement, a pragmatic approach aimed at reconciling religious divisions in England. This settlement delicately balanced Catholic and Protestant elements, establishing the Church of England as a Protestant institution while retaining certain Catholic traditions. It played a crucial role in mitigating religious tensions and fostering national stability. Moreover, Elizabeth's era is celebrated as a golden age for English literature and the arts. This period witnessed the emergence of renowned literary figures such as William Shakespeare, whose plays captivated audiences, alongside the poetry of Edmund Spenser and the prose of Francis Bacon. The flourishing of the arts not only enriched English culture but also contributed significantly to a burgeoning sense of national pride and identity.

NOTABLE FIGURES

William Shakespeare

William Shakespeare, widely regarded as one of the greatest playwrights and poets in the English language, flourished during the Elizabethan era under the patronage of Queen Elizabeth I. Born in 1564 and passing away in 1616, Shakespeare's life spanned the late Elizabethan and early Jacobean periods. Shakespeare's works are a cornerstone of English literature, encompassing a diverse range of genres, including tragedy, comedy, and history. His plays, such as "Hamlet," "Romeo and Juliet," and "Macbeth," continue to captivate audiences worldwide with their timeless themes, complex characters, and masterful language. In addition to his plays, Shakespeare's poetry, including his sonnets, showcases his profound insight into human nature and emotions. His linguistic prowess and creative imagination have left an indelible mark on the literary landscape, inspiring countless writers and artists across generations. Shakespeare's contributions to English culture during the Elizabethan era were profound, embodying the spirit of the age and contributing to a flourishing of the arts that continues to be celebrated to this day.

LANGUAGE TRANSFORMATION

The impact of the Great Plague

The cultural impact of the Great Plague of 1665-1666 on the English language was profound, influencing significant changes in pronunciation, particularly evident in the evolution of the Great Vowel Shift. This linguistic transformation was partly catalyzed by increased social mobility following the devastation caused by the plague, which indiscriminately claimed lives across different social strata. With a substantial portion of both the aristocracy and lower classes wiped out in a mere seven months, there arose a merging of lower-class English and higher-class Anglo-Norman, giving rise to a new form of Early Modern English.

The great Vowel Shift

During the Great Vowel Shift, English vowels underwent a significant transformation, shifting towards pronunciation closer to the front of the mouth. Additionally, many words' final 'e' became voiceless, altering their pronunciation. This shift marked a departure from the previous French-style vowel pronunciation, evident even in the naming of alphabet letters.

LANGUAGE TRANSFORMATION

The first English dictionary

During the Early Modern period, Robert Cawdrey published the first English dictionary in 1604, titled "A Table Alphabeticall." Though limited in scope and questioned for reliability, it marked a significant step toward standardizing English. Cawdrey's dictionary targeted "difficult" words, laying a foundation for future lexicographers. Samuel Johnson's more comprehensive dictionary in 1755 expanded on Cawdrey's efforts, shaping the course of English linguistic history and providing a framework for future dictionary compilers.

Title page of A Table Alphabeticall by Robert Cawdrey

Modern English 1750-Present

Modern English 1750- Present

INTRODUCTION

The modern period in English literature begins with the 20th century and continues till 1965. The period saw an abrupt break away from the old ways of interacting with the world. In all the previous periods experimentation and individualism were highly discouraged but With the onset of the modern period, both these things became virtues. There were many cultural shocks with the beginning of modernism. The blow of the modern age was World War 1 and 2. These wars began in the year 1914 and lasted till 1919 and 1939 to 1945 respectively. The aftermath of the world wars was traumatic for everyone. The horror of the World War 1 was evident in the face of every citizen. The feeling of uncertainty was spread and no one knew where the world was heading into.

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1760-1840

Modern English 1750- Present

The Industrial Revolution was a period of major changes in the way products are made. It took place more than 200 years ago and greatly affected the way people lived as well as the way they worked. In earlier days, people made products by hand. They worked mostly in their own homes or in small workshops. During the Industrial Revolution, many factories were built. Laborers began making large numbers of things using machines powered by engines. England was the first country in which these changes took place. However, the Industrial Revolution soon spread to other European countries, the United States, and Japan.

Modern English 1750- Present

INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION 1760-1840

Literary Movements

Modern English 1750- Present

ROMANTICISM (LATE 18TH - 19TH CENTURY)

Romanticism emerged as a reaction against the Industrial Revolution and the Enlightenment’s emphasis on reason. This literary movement valued emotion, individualism, and the sublime beauty of nature. Romantic poets such as William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, and Lord Byron often explored themes of nature, passion, and the heroic individual. The Romantic era celebrated the imagination as a powerful creative force and often highlighted the emotional and spiritual aspects of human experience. The movement also expressed a deep appreciation for the natural world, rejecting the growing industrialization and urbanization of society.

Modern English 1750- Present

Victorian literature, 19th Century

The Victorian era, under Queen Victoria’s reign from 1837 to 1901, witnessed significant transformations due to the Industrial Revolution and the expansion of the British Empire. It was an age of profound economic, scientific, and social change, which sparked extensive social reforms and influenced literature deeply. Authors like Charles Dickens, Charlotte Brontë, Thomas Hardy, and Oscar Wilde explored themes of social inequality, morality, and human identity, often critiquing societal norms. Additionally, Lewis Carroll introduced whimsy and fantasy in children’s literature, while Jules Verne, though French, paralleled Victorian themes with his explorations of science and adventure. The period was also marked by moral rigor and evolving debates over issues such as women's rights and labor laws, capturing the dynamic and complex nature of Victorian society.

Modern English 1750- Present

MODERNISM (LATE 19TH - MID 20TH CENTURY)

Modernism arose in response to the rapidly changing world, particularly after World War I, when the traditional structures of society seemed inadequate to address contemporary realities. The movement sought to break away from conventional forms and explore new techniques. Modernist literature is characterized by stream-of-consciousness writing, fragmented structures, and themes of alienation and existentialism. Key figures include James Joyce, Virginia Woolf, and T.S. Eliot. Modernism often emphasized the individual's subjective experience and experimented with narrative techniques to capture the complexity of human consciousness. The movement also reflected a sense of disillusionment with modern life and a desire to find new ways of understanding the world.

Some relevant authors

Modern English 1750- Present

Lord Byron

Lord Byron was born in London, England, and spent his early years in Scotland. He inherited his title at age 10, becoming the sixth Baron Byron of Rochdale. Byron's childhood was marked by instability due to his mother's mental health issues and his own physical disability, a clubfoot. Despite these challenges, he excelled academically, attending Harrow School and Trinity College, Cambridge. Byron's adventurous spirit led him to travel extensively, and his works, such as "Don Juan" and "Childe Harold's Pilgrimage," reflect his experiences. His charismatic personality and numerous love affairs added to his legendary status.

Modern English 1750- Present

Charles Dickens

Charles Dickens, born in Portsmouth, England, experienced a difficult childhood after his father was imprisoned for debt. He worked in a blacking factory at age 12, an experience that deeply impacted his writing. Dickens's early success as a writer came with the serialized publication of "The Pickwick Papers." He married Catherine Hogarth in 1836 and had ten children, though their marriage ended in separation. Dickens's later works, like "Bleak House" and "David Copperfield," solidified his status as a literary giant. His passion for social reform and vivid storytelling left a lasting legacy.

Modern English 1750- Present

Oscar Wilde

Oscar Wilde, born on October 16, 1854, in Dublin, Ireland, was a prominent Victorian playwright, novelist, and poet known for his biting wit, flamboyant style, and scathing critiques of societal norms. Best known for his novel "The Picture of Dorian Gray" and plays like "The Importance of Being Earnest," Wilde's works often addressed the hypocrisy and pretentiousness of the upper class, and explored themes of identity, morality, and beauty. His career ended abruptly when he was imprisoned in 1895 for "gross indecency" due to his homosexual relationships. After serving two years in prison, Wilde spent his remaining years in exile and poverty in France, where he died on November 30, 1900. Despite his tragic end, Wilde’s literary legacy continues to be celebrated for its sharp wit and profound insight into human behavior and society.

Modern English 1750- Present

James Joyce

James Joyce was born in Dublin in 1882. He belonged to a Catholic family and got his education from Catholic schools. During his studies he went through a phase of religious zest, however, he rejected the Catholic Church. He was influenced was Ibsen and inspired by his views, Joyce took literary mission as a career. He was sternly against the bigotry of Philistines in Dublin.

Joyce brought a number of changes in the conventional forms of fiction by generating a unique medium of art. He portrayed the crisis and chaos of consciousness in his contemporary world. He brought light to the stream of consciousness as a genre in modern period literature.

His most remarkable works include: Ulysses

Modern English 1750- Present

Virginia Woolf

Virginia Woolf, born in London, England, into a literary and artistic family, faced significant trauma in her youth with the deaths of close family members. She was educated at home and later became part of the Bloomsbury Group, a circle of intellectuals and artists. Woolf married Leonard Woolf in 1912, and together they founded the Hogarth Press, which published significant works of modernist literature. Woolf's pioneering stream-of-consciousness writing is evident in her novels, including "Mrs. Dalloway" and "Orlando." Her struggles with mental illness ultimately led to her suicide in 1941.

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

The Harlem Renaissance

Counterculture of the 1960s

The Beat Revolution

The Beat Generation: Emerging in the 1950s, the Beat Generation writers, such as Jack Kerouac and Allen Ginsberg, expressed their dissatisfaction with mainstream society through themes of nonconformity and spontaneous creativity.

Counterculture of the 1960s: This movement was characterized by a rejection of conventional norms and authority, leading to a flourishing of alternative lifestyles and artistic expression, often associated with the music of the time, such as that of The Beatles and Bob Dylan.

The Harlem Renaissance: An African-American cultural movement in the 1920s and 1930s, celebrated for its contributions to literature, music, and art. Key figures include Langston Hughes and Zora Neale Hurston.

THE COUNTERCULTURE

Tolkien

J.R.R. Tolkien, the author of "The Lord of the Rings" and "The Hobbit," had a significant yet somewhat indirect influence on the counterculture movement of the 1960s and 1970s. While Tolkien himself was a traditionalist with conservative views and a deep-seated love for myth and history, his works resonated strongly with the youth and countercultural movements of the time. His epic narratives, themes of resistance against industrialization, and emphasis on the power of the individual and small communities struck a chord with those who were disillusioned by the materialism, war, and environmental destruction of the era.

Tolkien's portrayal of a battle against overwhelming odds and the valorization of nature and simplicity appealed to the ideals of peace, freedom, and back-to-nature sentiments prevalent among the hippies and other countercultural groups. Moreover, the communal living and deep bonds between different races and peoples in Tolkien’s Middle-earth mirrored the counterculture's ideals of community and racial harmony. Tolkien’s works provided a form of escapism and an inspirational blueprint for a society that values cooperation, environmental stewardship, and peace over conflict and greed.

technological advancements

The Telegraph (19th Century)

Impact on Language

Brevity and Clarity: The telegraph encouraged concise and clear language since each word in a message cost money to send. This led to the creation of standardized codes and abbreviations, some of which have carried into modern digital communication. Telegraphic Speech: This term originated from the clipped style of telegraph messages and now refers to a way of speaking or writing that is concise and to the point, often omitting unnecessary words or using short phrases.

The invention of the telegraph by Samuel Morse in the 1830s revolutionized communication. It was the first form of electronic communication and laid the groundwork for later developments in telephony and broadcasting. The telegraph allowed for the rapid transmission of messages over long distances, effectively shrinking the world and increasing the speed of business, news dissemination, and personal communication.

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS

The Telephone (Late 19th Century)

Impact on Language

Alexander Graham Bell's invention of the telephone in 1876 further transformed communication, making it possible to speak with someone in real-time across great distances. The telephone changed personal and business communication, making it more direct and immediate.

Impact on Language: Informal Communication: The telephone popularized more informal styles of speaking. It bridged the gap between written correspondence and face-to-face conversation, influencing how language was used daily. Phonetic Changes: Over time, telephone communication has influenced accents and dialects as people are exposed to different ways of speaking from broader geographic areas.

TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCEMENTS

Radio and Television (20th Century)

Radio and television broadcasting began to take hold in the early to mid-20th century, profoundly impacting public communication. These media became crucial for entertainment, news, and information, reaching a broad audience and standardizing certain forms of English. Impact on Language: Standardization of Language: Broadcasting helped standardize English, particularly Received Pronunciation (RP) in the UK and General American English in the USA. These accents became associated with authority and broadcasting. New Vocabulary: Media and technology introduced a plethora of new words and phrases into the English language, reflecting new concepts and inventions.

Internet and Digital Communication (Late 20th - 21st Century)

The advent of the internet and mobile technology has perhaps been the most transformative. Starting from the late 20th century to the present, digital communication through emails, texting, social media, and instant messaging apps has reshaped language usage.

Impact on Language: Global English: The internet has facilitated the global spread of English, making it the predominant language online and further cementing its status as a global lingua franca. Informal and Hybrid Language Styles: Online communication has fostered even more informal and sometimes hybrid styles of writing and speaking, incorporating elements from various languages and cultures. Internet Slang and Acronyms: Digital communication has popularized acronyms (LOL, BRB), emojis, and meme culture, which are now integral parts of everyday language use among digital natives.

Modern English 1750- Present

Oxford English Dictionary

The 19th Century was also the time when the Oxford English Dictionary containing 415000entries, supported by 2 million citations with over 15000 pages in 12 volumes was compiled and was accepted as the definite guide to the English language

On February 1, 1884, editors published the first volume of what would become the Oxford English Dictionary. The fascicle—one part of a larger book, this one 352 pages covering “a” through “ant”—sold only 4,000 copies. Since then, the OED has become one of the most respected and comprehensive dictionaries in the world. The book, originally titled A New English Dictionary on Historical Principles; Founded Mainly on the Materials Collected by The Philological Society, was far from the first dictionary of the English language. (That would probably be Thomas Elyot’s “wordbook,” published in 1538.) However, an elite group of intellectuals was dissatisfied with the existing dictionaries, and set out to correct mistakes and add more words. The last printed edition of the OED was published in 1989, and contained 20 volumes.

SOCIETY

GLOBAL SPREAD

The British Empire's expansion spread English to various regions worldwide, leading to the emergence of distinct regional varieties or dialects. These varieties, such as American English, Australian English, and Caribbean English, reflect local linguistic influences and cultural identities. As English became a global lingua franca for trade, diplomacy, and technology, it absorbed vocabulary and expressions from languages spoken in regions where it was adopted, further enriching its lexicon.

LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE

In addition to the spread of English through the British Empire's expansion, the language was significantly influenced by cultural interactions and historical events. For instance, the Industrial Revolution of the 18th and 19th centuries brought about technological advancements and changes in social structures, which in turn introduced new vocabulary related to industry, manufacturing, and urban life into the English language. Moreover, the colonization of various regions by the British Empire led to language contact situations, resulting in the borrowing of words and phrases from indigenous languages. This phenomenon, known as lexical borrowing or loanwords, contributed to the diversity of English vocabulary, especially in areas where indigenous languages had a significant presence. Furthermore, the modern era witnessed the rise of mass media, including newspapers, radio, television, and the internet. These mediums played a crucial role in shaping language usage and disseminating linguistic innovations. For example, the broadcasting industry standardized accents and pronunciation norms, influencing speech patterns across different English-speaking regions. Additionally, cultural movements such as globalization, migration, and multiculturalism have contributed to the dynamic evolution of English. Increased interaction between speakers of different linguistic backgrounds has led to the adoption of new words, idioms, and expressions from various languages, reflecting the cultural diversity of English-speaking societies.

LANGUAGE TRANSFORMATION DRIVEN BY CULTURE

ARTISTIC INFLUENCE

LITERARY INFLUENCE

Literary movements such as Romanticism, Victorianism, and Modernism introduced new themes, styles, and linguistic innovations into English literature. Writers like William Wordsworth, Charles Dickens, and Virginia Woolf experimented with language to convey complex emotions and ideas.

Artistic movements, including Impressionism, Cubism, and Surrealism, also influenced language use by exploring new perspectives and challenging traditional representations in visual arts.

LANGUAGE TRANSFORMATION

STANDARDIZATION

VOCABULARY EXPANSION

Colonial expansion and trade routes brought English into contact with diverse cultures and languages worldwide. As a result, English borrowed words and phrases from languages such as Hindi, Arabic, Chinese, and indigenous languages spoken in regions colonized by the British Empire.

The publication of dictionaries and grammar guides played a crucial role in standardizing English spelling, grammar, and punctuation. Samuel Johnson's dictionary and subsequent works by lexicographers like Noah Webster helped establish norms for written English.

The spread of literacy and education further reinforced linguistic standards, as people learned to adhere to common spelling and grammar rules in their writing and communication.

The Industrial Revolution not only introduced new technological concepts but also transformed daily life, leading to the creation of vocabulary related to factories, machinery, and urbanization.

+info

Bibliography

Anderson, D. R., Lavigne, H. J., & Hanson, K. G. (2012). The Educational Impact Of Television. The International Encyclopedia of Media Studies. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444361506.wbiems134 ‌

Andrews, E. (2014). 8 Things You May Not Know About Emperor Claudius. https://www.history.com/news/8-things-you-may-not-know-about-emperor-claudius

Archives, T. N. (1215). The National Archives - Homepage. The National Archives. https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/magna-carta/british-library-magna-carta-1215-runnymede/ ‌

Borth, D. E. (2024). Telephone | History, Definition, & Uses. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/telephone ‌

Braha, S. (2016). Early Modern English.https://www.researchgate.net/publication/339416540_Early_Modern_English/citation/download

Bibliography

Britannica Kids (N.D). Bronze Age. https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Bronze-Age/352883

Britannica Kids (N. D ) . Industrial Revolution. https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Industrial-Revolution/353290

Britannica Kids (N. D ). Anglo-Saxon. https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Anglo-Saxon/352755

Carus-Wilson, E. (1987). The Woollen Industry. Cambridge University Press EBooks, 613–690. https://doi.org/10.1017/chol9780521087094.011 ‌

10

Chaucer, Geoffrey (n.d.). www.luminarium.org/medlit/chaucer.htm

Bibliography

HISTORY, CULTURE AND SOCIETY

11

Ciabattari, J. (2014, November 19). Hobbits and hippies: Tolkien and the counterculture. Www.bbc.com. https://www.bbc.com/culture/article/20141120-the-hobbits-and-the-hippies ‌

Discovering Literature - British Library literary treasures go digital - English and Drama blog. (2014). Blogs.bl.uk. https://blogs.bl.uk/english-and-drama/2014/05/discovering-literature-british-library-literary-treasures-go-digital.html ‌

12

English Heritage (N.D).AN INTRODUCTION TO PREHISTORIC ENGLAND (BEFORE AD 43).https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/prehistory/?_gl=1*1xmvikr*_up*MQ..*_ga*MTk3NDc2MDMyNC4xNzE0MjQ1MTc1*_ga_QK86RM1N34*MTcxNDI0NTE3NC4xLjAuMTcxNDI0NTE3NC4wLjAuMA

13

English Heritage (N.D). THE ROMAN INVASION OF BRITAIN: THE EARLIEST CAMPAIGNS, AD 43–7. https://www.english-heritage.org.uk/learn/story-of-england/romans/invasion/?_gl=1*xlub3b*_up*MQ..*_ga*NTgzMjg3ODgzLjE3MTQyNDE4MjY.*_ga_QK86RM1N34*MTcxNDI0MTgyNS4xLjEuMTcxNDI0MzIyMi4wLjAuMA

14

15

Federal Communications Commission. (2020, October 23). History of Commercial Radio. Federal Communications Commission. https://www.fcc.gov/media/radio/history-of-commercial-radio ‌

Bibliography

House of Plantagenet | History, Kings, & Facts | Britannica. (n.d.). Www.britannica.com. Retrieved May 1, 2024, from https://www.britannica.com/topic/house-of-Plantagenet#:~:text=house%20of%20Plantagenet%2C%20royal%20house%20of%20England%2C%20which ‌

16

17

Ibeji, M. (2011, March 10). BBC - History - British History in depth: Black Death. Bbc.co.uk. https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/middle_ages/black_01.shtml ‌

18

Kiddle (N. D ) . Old English facts for kids. https://kids.kiddle.co/Old_English

19

Kiddle (N. D ). Beowulf Facts for Kids. https://kids.kiddle.co/Beowulf

20

Kuiper, K. (2020). Modernism | Definition, History, & Examples | Britannica. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/art/Modernism-art#ref282535 ‌

Library of Congress. (n.d.). The Harlem Renaissance | Classroom Materials | Library of Congress. Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA. https://www.loc.gov/classroom-materials/harlem-renaissance/ ‌

21

Bibliography

22

Life of Oscar Wilde | The British Library. (n.d.). British Library. https://www.britishlibrary.cn/en/articles/life-of-oscar-wilde/ ‌

23

McGillem, C. D. (2016). Telegraph. In Encyclopædia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/technology/telegraph ‌

National Geographic Society(2023). Feb 1, 1884 CE: First Publication of the Oxford English Dictionary. https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/first-publication-oxford-english-dictionary/

24

25

No title. (N. D ). Twinkl.es. Recuperado de https://www.twinkl.es/teaching-wiki/history-of-vikings-in-england

26

Oscar Wilde - Biography and Works. Search Texts, Read Online. Discuss. (n.d.). Www.online-Literature.com. Retrieved May 6, 2024, from https://www.online-literature.com/wilde/ ‌

Bibliography

Poetry Foundation. (2019). An Introduction to the Beat Poets. Poetry Foundation. https://www.poetryfoundation.org/collections/147552/an-introduction-to-the-beat-poets ‌

27

Smithsonian Institution. (2014). Telephones through Time. Smithsonian Institution; Smithsonian Institution. https://www.si.edu/spotlight/phones ‌

28

The History of the English Language - Old English dialects. (2019, November 14). The Historical Linguist Channel. https://thehistoricallinguistchannel.com/the-history-of-the-english-language-old-english-dialects/ ‌

29

30

The Historical Linguist Channel. (2019, November 14). The History of the English Language - Old English dialects. https://thehistoricallinguistichanel.com/the-history-of-the-english-language-old-english-dialects/

The National Archives. (1215). Magna Carta. https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/education/resources/magna-carta/british-library-magna-carta-1215-runnymede/h

31

Bibliography

32

The Sixties | PBS. (2020). Pbs.org. https://www.pbs.org/opb/thesixties/ ‌

The Victorian Web: Linking Scholarship, Teaching and Learning since 1994. (n.d.). Www.victorianweb.org. https://www.victorianweb.org/ ‌

33

34

Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain – Virginia Woolf Society of Great Britain. (n.d.). http://www.virginiawoolfsociety.org.uk/ ‌

Vyad (2023, 22 septiembre). Modern period in the English Literature | Famous modernist writers. AllAssignmentHelp.com. https://www.allassignmenthelp.com/blog/modern-period-in-english-literature/

35

Zimmermann, K. A., & Emspak, J. (2017, June 27). Internet History Timeline: ARPANET to the World Wide Web. Live Science; Live Science. https://www.livescience.com/20727-internet-history.html ‌

36

Thank you!