Information Has Value

Introduction

Every day, we have access to thousands of pieces of information. The availability of information only continues to expand as creating and distributing information becomes easier. For example, when you use social media to share an image with a caption, you are contributing to the information landscape.

In this dynamic environment, building a strong foundation of information literacy skills is essential to achieving academic, workplace, and personal success. Information literacy skills help you to identify, evaluate, and utilize information in a variety of formats. One of the first steps toward becoming information literate is to recognize that information has value, which influences how it gets used and managed. Throughout this tutorial we'll explore:

• The legal protections put in place to maintain the value of information.
• The dimensions in which information has value, including information as a commodity and information as a means of education and influence.
• The ways YOU can responsibly manage your information.

Information Has Value

Imagine you are putting together a resource packet for students who work part- time to fund their education. You spend weeks interviewing students and gathering information about job tips and work and study habits. When your resource packet is published online, you make it freely available so it can help as many students as possible.

Some time later, you see your resource packet published on someone else’s website. There is no mention of your name nor any acknowledgement to the effort you put into creating the resource.

The creation of information, from a short news bulletin to a full-length documentary, requires time, original thought, and research. Because so much effort and so many resources go into creating information, it is crucial to use sources in a responsible and ethical manner.One of the ways you can do this is by providing credit where credit is due. In this way, you show respect for the hard work of others. Think of the bibliography or reference page that is required when completing an academic assignment. Giving credit to the original creator helps others access the information in its original context and also keeps your ideas from being confused with anyone else's. Respecting another's hard work and intellectual output is ethical behavior. It also benefits you if a person references your work in the future.

Intellectual Property

As we saw in the example on the previous page, the value of information isn’t always monetary. Regardless of the commercial value of information, ideas and creations have value to the creator and users alike. These ideas and assets are called intellectual property. Intellectual property is an idea or invention that comes from someone's mind. For example, the text of a book that was adapted into a stage production is the intellectual property of the book’s author. You may also see groups or organizations claiming ownership of intellectual property. A TV show, for example, is the intellectual property of the production company. This is where the notion of attribution comes into play. When you use someone else's intellectual property, you must properly give them credit by attributing them in your work. Understanding the nuances of intellectual property will help you locate the appropriate party to which to give credit. In order to effectively understand the notions of intellectual property and information as having value, it is important to understand the legal rules of using information. On the next page, we’ll start by discussing copyright.

Copyright

Copyright protection generally covers original works in a fixed format, such as music, novels, and pieces of art. Improvised dialogue that is not part of a written script, for example, cannot be protected by copyright. For information users, the existence of copyright protections means there are restrictions on how or how much of a work you can use. For example, a copyright statement may prevent anyone from using any part of the original work without express permission of the creator. In other cases, copyright protection may allow use of the work without permission from the creator for educational or entertainment purposes only. Copyright is not an indefinite protection. In the United States, it generally lasts 70 years past the life of the creator. To learn more about copyright and the types of works it protects, see our Copyright tutorial. There are exceptions to using works protected by copyright such as Fair Use and assets found in the public domain. We’ll discuss these concepts on the following pages.

Fair Use

Fair use is a consideration used by intellectual property courts to determine if unlicensed use of a copyright-protected work was legal or not. To determine fairness of use, legal professionals will weigh the following four factors.

• The purpose and character of the use.

• The nature of the copyrighted work.

• The extent of the use.

• The potential market impact of the use..

You can learn more about Fair Use by visiting the Copyright tutorial.

Note: Intellectual property rights is its own professional field covering many rules and complexities. As a student, you are not expected to be able to determine a fair use case on your own. You should however, be able to recognize the value, both intellectual and commercial, of a work and be able to determine if and how a protected work might be used. If in doubt, ask your librarian for assistance. They can help you locate related materials with fewer restrictions on use, such as works in the public domain.

Public Domain

Works in the public domain either do not meet the requirements for copyright or their copyright protection has expired. In the United States, for example, the book The Great Gatsby became part of the public domain at the beginning of 2021 because the book’s copyright expired. A book published this year will not enter the public domain until its copyright expires (70 years after the author’s death), unless the author expressly dedicates their work to the public domain. Sources from the public domain generally can be used without permission but still require attribution. Keep in mind that every country or region has its own rules when it comes to materials in the public domain. Be sure to review the definitions and exceptions for your country or region.

You may also come across materials available under a Creative Commons license. A Creative Commons license allows the copyright holder control over how their work is used while also granting wider access and use of the work without formal authorization. There are several types of Creative Commons licenses, so be sure to read each license’s specifications for proper use carefully. Now that you understand the legal framework for information, let's take a look at the ways in which information is valuable and influential.

Information as a Means of Influence

Whether we realize it or not, information influences every decision that we make. The accessibility of information allows us to make the best decisions because we have the opportunity to consider evidence and viewpoints that shape our thinking.For example:

• Companies facing big decisions like investing or partnership opportunities cannot move forward with adequate information about the benefits and risks related to the decision. In some cases, the information required to make a decision, such as the financial data of a potential partner, can only be obtained after ensuring confidentiality.
• An individual deciding where his family should live would benefit by gathering information on schools, home prices, and safety in different areas. This process of information gathering would require him to visit several sources and synthesize the information before making a decision.

Even simple or mundane tasks are influenced by information. If you’ve ever checked the weather to decide what to wear or consulted a bus schedule to determine when you need to leave for class, you’ve used information to inform your actions.

Information as Commodity

Although information is everywhere and often intangible (think of ideas or concepts that have no physical presence), it can be considered a commodity: something that can be bought and sold.

In business, protected information about how a product is made, also known as a trade secret, carries very real value. Think of the recipe for the beverage Coca Cola. The components and processes for making this drink form the basis for a multibillion dollar company. Your personal information is also a commodity. In fact, there are companies whose sole purpose is to collect data and information on the public's online searches, buying habits, and product preferences. Have you ever noticed that the advertisements in your web browser are related to information that you've searched for in the past? This is called targeted advertising and is another way in which gathered information can be used for consumer purposes. Consumer manufacturing companies pay big money for this type of information so that they can market their products more effectively.

Even in academic settings, information is a commodity. Consider the library resources you use to perform research. You might use a database on your library’s website to access articles on your research topic. Did you know that your university library pays to allow you to access that information? Access to general and subject specific databases are one of the benefits that you as a student receive as a tuition-paying member of the student body. After you graduate and enter the workplace, you likely won’t have the same level of access to these high-quality sources.

The Digital Divide

An issue that has arisen from the commodification of information is that of "digital divide." Digital divide refers to the disparity between those who have access to information and those who do not. The quality of information available is another factor to consider when discussing the digital divide. Factors contributing to the digital divide include:

Access. A lack of access to the Internet leads to a population that is closed off from general information sources. Access can be limited due to several factors including physical location, accessibility issues, and cost. For example, if you live in an area that cannot be reached by broadband, wifi, or satellite, you would have trouble accessing online resources. Or, if using the technology required to access online resources is challenging for you, you would also have trouble finding the information that you need.

Cost. While it's true that information is freely available online, much of the high-quality or scholarly sources are owned by publishers and are walled off from the public by exorbitant fees, often referred to as a paywall. Think of the monthly fees required to stream entertainment or the subscriptions that libraries sign up for to provide access to scholarly databases.

Impact of the Digital Divide

The digital divide is a major issue both in the United States and internationally. Imagine a doctor in a developing country who needs information about a clinical trial that proposes alternative treatment for HIV. It is likely that he barely can keep his practice supplied with the medical tools he needs to treat his patients, let alone pay access fees to view an article. During the COVID-19 pandemic, students around the world experienced the challenges of limited access. While online learning was widely adopted to prevent the spread of the virus in the classroom, many students were unable to participate in digital classrooms from their homes due to lack of technology resources. In this case, inadequate or the lack of internet access made learning from home frustrating for students, parents, and teachers alike.

Open Movements

Many "open information" movements have arisen in an attempt to combat information access issues. The basis behind the "open" movement is that information such as data sets and scholarly articles should be freely accessible to the public. For example, the Open Knowledge Foundation operates under the premise that data should be freely used, reused, and redistributed by anyone. How can something like this benefit the public? As an example, data collected by a city could be used to develop an app that warns cyclists of dangerous intersections. Or, open sets of environmental data, which are often limited to researchers or government agencies, could be accessed by the public and community organizations to support initiatives to improve local water quality.

Information as a Means of Education

Information has value in that it can teach you new things and serve as a foundation for fresh ideas and insights of your own. Seeking new information from a variety of sources is a foundational part of being a student. New information can help you shape your own perspective on the world and equip you to think critically in your personal and professional pursuits. In your academic career, professors ask you to cite outside sources and incorporate information you find into your own work to inform and enhance your argument. In addition to knowing how to properly give credit to your sources, being a responsible user of information means taking ownership of your learning. This means putting in the work to get the most out of your education. You’ll learn more about this concept in the Academic Integrity tutorial.

Information Use in the Professional Realm

Information also has great value in the professional realm. For example…

• Information on treatment protocols influences the decision making processes of medical professionals who treat patients and prescribe medicine.
• Politicians use information and data to inform new bills in Congress.
• Companies can draw on user experience data to make improvements to their products and services.

Because information in the professional world often has monetary value, knowing how to manage information responsibly is part of respecting the value of information. As a professional, you may be involved with handling information, like client details or financial data, that is confidential. Without proper protection, confidential information can pass into the wrong hands and have negative financial, political, and social consequences.

Responsibly Managing Your Information

Your actions when managing data and information affect others as well as you as an individual. It's important to keep in mind that how you manage information can impact a larger community in both positive and potentially negative ways. For example, failing to keep the key code to a shared space like an apartment or dorm facility safe can compromise the quality and security of the property. Taking steps to safeguard digital information like passwords or confidential information helps keep you and others safe. This is another way in which information has value.

Personal Information

Let's take a moment to consider your personal information. It is important to manage information in a way that creates trust and doesn't negatively impact your communities, whether online or in person. With the rise of the online environment, there has been increased discussion around protecting privacy and personal information.

Personal information is related to many aspects of your life from your home address to the types of items you most frequently shop for online. In some cases, there are benefits to making some degree of personal information widely available. Public health data, for example, is essential for communities and health care providers when making decisions about the well-being of their residents and patients. Providing your personal Information such as age, health history, household income, access to food sources, and education can help decision makers provide services that are appropriate to your needs and those of your community. Take into consideration potential use when making decisions on how to manage your information. Think of online shops that notify you that your location and purchases will be recorded for marketing purposes. If you prefer not to contribute to the company’s marketing data, you can choose to deny permission to share your preferences and purchases while on the site.

Make Conscious Decisions

Modern technology makes it very easy for your personal information to be accessed by others, including commercial entities and hiring committees. This isn't always necessarily a bad thing, but it does mean that you need to think ahead when sharing certain pieces of information online. Think about the data you share and how it could affect your future endeavors. For example, can the comments that you have made on social media over the years affect how likely you are to get an interview for a coveted job or internship? In addition to considering specific incidents of sharing information, like sharing a picture on social media, it’s important to look at the information you have shared as a whole. Think of it as an information portfolio that includes the types of information you engage with, the purpose and security of the channels to which you share information, and the amount of information you make accessible to others.

Information Mining

As we discussed earlier in this tutorial, many companies center around buying and selling information. For example, social media platforms are often free to use. They make their money off of targeted advertisements based on your personal information and activity on the platform. Gathering information about users based on their actions and preferences is called information mining. Information mining allows various entities to collect data on behaviors and attitudes of groups or individuals. This information can be based on grocery store scans or Internet browsing histories, and this data often is used for marketing products and services users are most likely to engage with. Clearing your browsing history and website "cookies" or using a private browsing mode can help prevent your information from being accessed by outside entities. Keep in mind that your information may not be given voluntarily. Technology can be used with malicious intent to steal information like your contact information or account password. As these methods become more and more sophisticated you may engage with an ill-intentioned scheme without knowing it.

Information Legacy

Much of what you make available online can remain with you. That social media post you deleted may not completely disappear, especially if it was shared, copied, or archived in some way. Similarly, companies and data banks may retain your information after you stop engaging with their services or platform. Paying attention to privacy settings in your social media accounts can help, but is not foolproof. Maintain a level of self-awareness and keep potential problems in mind when sharing information about yourself and others. Ask yourself:

• What information am I sharing?
• Who will have access to the information?
• What level of control do I have over the information after it is shared?
• What are the potential consequences if the information gets into the wrong hands?

Conclusion

Now that you are better prepared to appreciate information and use it responsibly, you should be able to:

• Describe the concept of information having value.

• Discuss the dimensions in which information has value, including information as a commodity and a means of education and influence.

• Take steps to responsibly manage your information.

For more tips on respecting the value of information, please see our Academic Integrity and Digital Citizenship tutorials.