Conquest of the Americas

Spanish Conquest of the Americas

The word Conquistador is Spanish for "conqueror." Typically, when we use the word, Conquistador, we are referring to any Spaniard who conquered land in the New World for Spain.

God, Glory, and Gold

Many Conquistadors were motivated to explore for three reasons: God, Glory, and Gold. They believed it was their duty to God to convert natives to Christianity. They wanted to become famous, gain new titles (become a nobleman), and gain government positions (aka glory). They also wanted to get rich from finding gold.

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Conquest of the Americas

Juan Ponce de León 1513

Vasco Núñez de Balboa 1513

Hernán Cortés 1518-22

Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 1540-42

Hernando de Soto 1539-44

Francisco Pizarro 1531-33

Conquest of the Americas

Vasco Núñez de Balboa 1513

Conquest of the Americas

Juan Ponce de León 1513

Conquest of the Americas

Hernán Cortés 1518-22

Conquest of the Americas

Francisco Pizarro 1531-33

Conquest of the Americas

Hernando de Soto 1539-44

Conquest of the Americas

Francisco Vázquez de Coronado 1540-42

Background

Balboa was born around 1475 in a town in Spain called Jerez de los Caballeros. His father was a nobleman, but the family had lost most of their money and power by the time Balboa was born. As a young boy, Balboa was trained to be a knight and a soldier. He lived in a seaport town called Moguer, where he heard stories about the riches and adventures that could be found in the New World. In 1500, he joined an expedition to explore the northern coast of South America.

Later Years and Legacy

Balboa's discovery made him popular with the king of Spain again. He was made governor of the provinces of Panama and Coiba. However, he still had to answer to a man named Pedro Arias Dávila, who was jealous of Balboa's success. Balboa was arrested and falsely accused of starting a rebellion. He was found guilty and was executed in 1519.

Balboa's legacy lives on today. He helped establish the first stable European settlement on the mainland of South America. He was also the first European to see the Pacific Ocean from the New World. His discovery changed the world for Spain, and his name is remembered in Panama, where streets, parks, and even the currency are named after him.

Background

Francisco Vásquez de Coronado was born in 1510 in Salamanca, Spain. He came from a noble family with a big estate. Not much is known about Coronado's early life, but because of his family's status, he probably had a good education. Since he was the second son, he was expected to work and make his own money. His father worked for Iñigo López de Mendoza, the governor of Granada, Spain. Iñigo had a son named Antonio, who became friends with Francisco. During this time, Spanish explorers had invaded many parts of the New World and started setting up colonies. The Spanish empire named this territory New Spain, which is now known as Mexico. In April 1535, Antonio de Mendoza was made the ruler of New Spain. Mendoza asked Coronado to join him and work as his assistant. While in New Spain, Coronado married Beatriz de Estrada, who came from a rich family. Once married, Coronado inherited half of her wealth. Coronado became an important military leader helping to settle arguments between the natives and the Spaniards. In 1538, he was made governor of New Galicia, a province in western Mexico. Coronado was now rich, respected, and a leader in the New World. Mendoza and Coronado had heard stories about a place known as the Seven Golden Cities of Cibola. They believed these Native American cities were filled with riches. So Mendoza chose Coronado to lead an expedition to find and explore these cities, and conquer the area and treasures for Spain.

Background

Hernán Cortés was born in 1485 in a small village in Spain called Medellín. Cortés was related to Francisco Pizarro, the explorer who conquered the Incan empire in Peru. Cortés' family was noble, but they weren't very rich. As a child, Cortés was often sick, but he got healthier as he grew older. When he was 14, he went to the University of Salamanca to study law. But after two years, he got bored and dropped out. He was excited by stories of gold and riches in the New World. He joined an expedition to the New World led by Nicolás de Ovando, but he got injured and couldn't go. Cortés was still fascinated by the New World and its potential wealth. In 1504, he traveled to Santo Domingo, Hispaniola (now the Dominican Republic). He became a farmer and made a lot of money. He also owned several native slaves.

Francisco Coronado started his expedition in February 1540. He had about 300 Spanish soldiers, several hundred natives, and herds of horses, cattle, and other livestock. They were traveling to lands northeast of New Galicia. This area had not been explored by the Spanish, even though they controlled much of the land. They started along the West Coast of Mexico. They then crossed the mountains into present-day Southeast Arizona. In July 1540, Coronado and his men thought they had found the golden cities of Cibola. What they actually found was the Native American pueblos of the Zuñi tribe in present-day New Mexico. Pueblo is Spanish for “village” or “town.” Pueblos were a group of homes lived in by Native Americans, especially the Pueblo people. Coronado conquered the town of Hawikuh and set up camp there. Cibola did not have the gold or other riches Coronado had expected to find. In the fall of 1540, they moved their base. Coronado soon sent out two scouting parties. One party, led by Garcia Lopez de Cardenas, became the first Europeans to discover the Grand Canyon. The other party found more pueblos in the Rio Grande Valley. In the Tiguex area (near modern-day Albuquerque, New Mexico) they began a battle against the Pueblo natives. This battle lasted several months before it ended. Coronado was still disappointed that he had found no treasures. But his hope was restored in 1541 when he heard stories of a new land filled with riches.

Finding the Pueblos

Pueblos

Cortés' First Expedition

He got his first taste of exploration when he joined a mission led by Diégo Velasquez in 1511. When he came back, he promised to marry Catalina Suarez, but he changed his mind at the last minute. Velasquez, who was now the governor of Cuba, put Cortés in jail for breaking his promise. Eventually, Cortés agreed to marry Catalina, but he and Velasquez didn't get along. In 1518, Velasquez chose Cortés to lead an expedition to conquer Mexico. But he changed his mind because he thought Cortés was too ambitious. Cortés ignored Velasquez and went to Mexico in 1519 to start his invasion.

de Soto's Legacy

Hernando de Soto’s journey was one of the biggest efforts made by the Spanish to explore the interior of North America. De Soto and his men were the first to thoroughly explore most of the southern half of the modern United States. He is credited as being the first European to discover and cross the great Mississippi River. It's important to remember that the Spanish explorers also brought diseases like measles, smallpox, and chickenpox, which the Native Americans had no immunity to, causing many of them to die. Despite this, de Soto’s records and maps added a lot to Europe’s knowledge of the New World and also provided information on the practices and culture of Native Americans before the arrival of Europeans.

Pizarro's Second Expedition

The next year, Pizarro started to work for the new governor of Panama, Pedrarias Dávila. In 1519, Pizarro was ordered to arrest Balboa, Dávila’s rival. Balboa was arrested and later killed. Pizarro was rewarded and eventually gained a fair amount of wealth and land, which gave him status in the New World. Pizarro still wanted more power and wealth. Pizarro became friends with fellow soldier Diego de Almagro. They planned a trip for discovery and conquest down the west coast of South America. Together, they set out in search of riches in South America. Pizarro sailed from the Bay of Panama in November 1524, into the Biru river, which he followed for several days. They were running low on supplies, so they stopped at the Isle of Pearls just south of Panama for supplies. They met friendly natives who gave the Europeans food, but the Europeans also stole much of their gold. They continued sailing southward. Their ship eventually needed repair, so they returned to the Bay of Panama with the gold they had gained. Before returning, they named the land Peru, most likely after the name of the Biru River.

de Soto's Main Expedition - part 3

After crossing the river, the expedition headed into modern-day Arkansas. They spent the next year in Arkansas looking for gold and other mineral riches. Finding none, they soon returned across the Mississippi River. It was not long after the return crossing that de Soto was struck with a fever and fell deathly ill. He never recovered. Hernando de Soto died May 21, 1542. His crew continued on without their fearless leader, eventually reaching a Spanish settlement in New Spain (present-day Mexico).

Francisco Pizarro was born around 1475 in Trujillo, Spain. This is the same region where another famous explorer, Hernando de Soto, was from. Pizarro's family was poor. His dad was an army officer and his mom was a servant. Unfortunately, Pizarro didn't get much attention from his parents, get a good education, and never learned to read or write. Instead, he started working at a young age taking care of pigs. Despite this, Pizarro dreamed of adventure, excitement, and wealth. So, as a teenager, he joined the Spanish army. Pizarro spent a lot of his time as a soldier in Italy where he became known for being brave. When he was in his late teens, the famous explorer Christopher Columbus landed in the New World. Spain quickly started to build their empire in new colonies in the Caribbean and South America. The journeys of Columbus and the promise of riches excited many people, including young Pizarro. Around 1502, ten years after Columbus sailed, Pizarro left Spain and sailed to Hispaniola. Pizarro served in the military there for a few years, but he still dreamed of exploring the New World.

Background

Later Life and Legacy

Hernán Cortés remains one of the most successful of the Spanish conquistadors. He was a hero in the 16th century, but history remembers him differently. He had many conquests during his life. But he is perhaps most known for his conquer of the Aztec Empire in 1521. He enslaved much of the native population, and many of the indigenous people were wiped out from European diseases such as smallpox. He was a smart, ambitious man who wanted to appropriate new land for the Spanish crown, convert native inhabitants to Catholicism, and plunder the lands for gold and riches. However, we still recognize his role in history. He helped oversee the building of Mexico City, which is still Mexico’s capital today. He opened the door for further exploration and conquest of Central America to the south, and eventually led to the acquisition of California towards the north.

Cortés and his men marched to Tenochtitlán. They reached the capital of the Aztec empire on November 8, 1519. The ruler of the Aztec civilization was Montezuma II. Montezuma, though uncertain of the Spaniards’ intent, welcomed them graciously. He gave them a tour of his palace, and they were given extravagant gifts. This fueled the Spaniards’ greed and relations turned hostile shortly after. Cortés took Montezuma captive and the Spaniards raided the city. Montezuma was murdered shortly after from being stoned by his own people. In 1520, Spanish troops had been sent to Mexico to arrest Cortés for disobeying orders. He left Tenochtitlán to face the opposing Spaniards. After defeating them, Cortés returned to the Aztec capital to find a rebellion in progress. The Spaniards had been driven from the city. Cortés reorganized his men and allies, and seized control of neighboring territories around the capital. They regained control of the city by August of 1521. This marked the fall of the Aztec empire. Cortés had seized control of Mexico for Spain. Cortés was named governor, and went on to establish Mexico City, built on the ruins of the fallen Aztec capital.

Fall of the Aztec Empire

The Start of Cortés' Main Expedition

In 1519, Hernán Cortés left Cuba with about 600 men and went to the Yucatan region of Mexico. He first arrived in Cozumel and started exploring the land. He met the local people and saw their large pyramid. He was shocked to learn that they used the pyramid for human sacrifices. Cortés started trying to convert the locals to Christianity. He tore down their idols and replaced them with crosses and statues of the Virgin Mary. Cortés used local translators and guides to communicate with the locals and travel the land. Later, Cortés and his men landed at Tabasco. Here, they fought with the locals. The Spanish soldiers' weapons and armor were too strong for the Tabascans. The Tabascans promised to be loyal to Spain and gave Cortés gold and slave women. One of the local leaders gave Cortés a slave woman named Malinche. She spoke both Aztec and Mayan languages, which was very helpful to Cortés. She eventually learned Spanish and became Cortés's personal interpreter and guide.

In 1510, Pizarro joined Alonso de Ojeda and 300 other settlers on a trip to start a colony on the coast of South America. They named the colony San Sebastian (in present-day Colombia). After the colony was settled, Ojeda went back to Santo Domingo in Hispaniola for more supplies. Francisco Pizarro was left in charge while Ojeda was gone. Many of the settlers got sick and died from tropical diseases they caught in the jungles. Out of the 300 settlers who originally joined the trip, 200 died from sickness, hunger, and attacks from natives. Pizarro and the other survivors left San Sebastian and set up a new colony at Darien, in what is now Panama. He became friends with the colony’s new leader – and soon-to-be-famous explorer – Vasco de Nuñez de Balboa. In 1513, Pizarro was Balboa’s second in command during their journey westward across Panama to discover the South Sea. Balboa, Pizarro, and their men were the first Europeans to see the South Sea, which is now called the Pacific Ocean.

Pizarro's First Expedition

de Soto's Main Expedition - part 1

Even though he was rich and had a wife in Spain, de Soto wanted more adventure. He wanted to be a governor like Pizarro. He asked Emperor Carlos V for lands in either Ecuador, Guatemala, or Colombia. All three requests were denied. But he was given the right to go and conquer and govern the territory La Florida. This area would eventually become the state of Florida we know today. For the next few years, de Soto and his men explored what would become the southeastern United States. They left Spain in April 1538. They stopped in Havana, Cuba, then sailed for La Florida and landed near modern day Tampa Bay on May 25. They began moving north, and then northwest. They stopped at the Apalachee town of Anhaica – near present day Tallahassee – in early fall. They stayed here through winter. It would be several months before de Soto’s expedition would continue onward.

Approaching Tenochititlán

After conquering the Tabascan people, Cortés moved to Tlaxcala, a city of the powerful Aztec empire. The Aztecs were not always popular rulers among their conquered cities. When Cortés learned of this, he used it to his advantage. He met with Aztec ambassadors and told them he wanted to meet the great Aztec ruler Montezuma. Xicotenga, a ruler in the city Tlaxcala, saw an ally in Cortés and an opportunity to overthrow the capital city of Tenochtitlán. They formed an alliance, and Cortés was given several thousand warriors to add to his ranks. By this time, Cortés' men were beginning to grumble about Cortés. He continued ignoring Velázquez’s orders to return to Cuba, and the men felt he was overstepping his authority. Afraid his men would leave, Cortés destroyed all the ships. With nowhere for the men to go, they followed Cortés onward to Tenochtitlán.

de Soto's Main Expedition - part 2

In spring 1540, de Soto and his team set off again. They moved further northeast towards present-day Georgia. After this came what would become the Carolinas. They soon crossed the Appalachian Mountains into present-day Tennessee and traced the Tennessee River Valley. Finding no gold, they turned south, heading into present-day Alabama. They arrived at a town called Mobila (near present-day Mobile) where they fought with the natives who lived there. Afterward, they turned northwest out of Alabama and into present-day Mississippi. Here another battle took place in which the Spaniards fought off the natives. Soon after, they made camp and spent the winter in Mississippi. They continued on several months after, and in May 1541, de Soto and his men came upon the Mississippi River. They built rafts and crossed the river. Hernando de Soto and his expedition became the first Europeans to see and cross the mighty Mississippi River.

Background

Juan Ponce de Leon was born in Spain in 1474. His parents were nobles. When he was a boy, he worked for Don Pedro Núñez de Guzmán, a Knight Commander in the royal court. This was a big deal! As a squire, or personal attendant, Juan would help Guzmán with things like taking care of his horse and getting dressed. In return, he learned about social manners, hunting, and military training. He used these skills when he fought in a war against the Muslim Moors in 1487. After the war ended in 1492, he joined Christopher Columbus on his second trip to the New World. He settled on the island of Hispaniola, which is now the Dominican Republic and Haiti.

Later Years and Legacy

Francisco Pizarro spent the next several years maintaining the Spanish control of Peru. Pizarro and his partner, Almagro, experienced years of tension and rivalry. Almagro felt he should have some power in Cuzco. The two constantly fought for control of the city, and Pizarro eventually had Almagro imprisoned and executed in 1538. Pizarro continued exploring and even founded the city Lima, Peru. Still upset at Pizarro for having Almagro killed, several of Almagro’s followers avenged his death a few years later. They attacked his palace and killed Pizarro in Lima on June 26, 1541. Francisco Pizarro increased Spain’s hold in South America. His desire for wealth and power drove him to become one of the greatest conquistadors of the New World. His capture and execution of the Inca ruler lead to the end of the Inca empire. While this was a proud achievement to him, today we understand that this was an unfortunate event that wiped out an entire culture. The enslavement and death from Spanish diseases caused the native population to decline by millions over the course of a few decades. Nonetheless, Pizarro helped explore and colonize several parts of South America. His achievements are still seen today. The city Lima which Pizarro named and established is the capital of Peru today.

Dávila did not allow Pizarro to continue his explorations. So Pizarro left South America in spring of 1528 to return to Spain. Here, he asked Emperor Carlos V to allow his plans for further exploration and conquest of Peru. The emperor not only gave Pizarro permission to continue his conquests, but gave him a coat of arms and other honors as well. In July 1529, Pizarro was made governor and captain general of the New Castile province, an area south of Panama along the newly discovered coast. He returned to Panama in 1530, and set sail for Peru in January 1531. Another explorer, Hernando de Soto, had joined Pizarro’s expedition. De Soto scouted ahead and reported that they were in the middle of a civil war. Pizarro requested a meeting with the Inca ruler Atahualpa. Atahualpa finally agreed to a meeting, and Pizarro arrived there in November 1531. The Spanish tried to convert Atahualpa to Christianity. He refused, and soon war broke out between the Inca and the Spaniards for several years. The Spaniards, Pizarro, and his men defeated the Inca army, Pizarro himself capturing the Inca ruler. Pizarro demanded they be given all of their gold and treasure for Atahualpa’s freedom. Despite the Inca giving them the riches, Pizarro still had Atahualpa killed in 1533. The Inca armies retreated, and the Spanish army continued onward to the Inca capital of Cuzco. Pizarro and his army entered the city, and soon conquered the rest of the Inca army and took over the capital. He sacked the city and robbed its weather. The remaining Inca natives were either killed or enslaved. The great Inca empire had come to an end.

Pizarro's Main Expedition

Focus on the 1531 route.

de León's First Expedition

While living on Hispaniola, Juan Ponce de Leon helped fight against the native people. The Europeans fought and enslaved many of the natives. For his help, the governor of Hispaniola gave Juan Ponce de Leon a big reward. He became the governor of one of the provinces and was given land and slaves. He became wealthy as a farmer. But he wanted to find gold. He had heard stories about a place called Boriquen, which is now Puerto Rico, that was full of gold. So, in 1506, he went to Puerto Rico to see if the stories were true. He found that the island did have gold and other valuable things. He went back to Hispaniola with plans to return to Puerto Rico. In 1508, Juan Ponce de Leon asked the king of Spain if he could go to Puerto Rico. The king said yes. So, he gathered a crew and some boats and set sail. He explored the island and set up the oldest settlement of Caparra near San Juan. In 1510, the king made him the governor of Puerto Rico. But he was replaced by Diego Columbus in 1511.

Even though he didn't find the Fountain of Youth, the king of Spain was happy with Juan Ponce de Leon's discovery. He was knighted and made the governor of both Florida and Bimini. He made several trips between Puerto Rico and Spain over the next few years. He was also given permission to set up a colony in Florida. In 1521, Juan Ponce de Leon went back to Florida. But not long after he arrived, he was attacked by the natives and wounded by an arrow. He went to Havana, Cuba, where he died from his wounds. Juan Ponce de Leon is remembered as the first European to visit what is now the United States. He was also the first governor of Puerto Rico. Even though he didn't set up a colony in Florida, his discovery led to more Spanish exploration of the Americas.

Later Life and Legacy

De León's Main Expedition

The king wanted Juan Ponce de Leon to find new lands. He had heard stories about a Fountain of Youth and a lot of gold on an island called Bimini. So, in March 1513, he left Puerto Rico to look for this fountain. On his journey, Juan Ponce de Leon and his crew landed near what is now St. Augustine. He realized they were not at Bimini. He noticed the land was full of beautiful plants, so he named it La Florida, which means "The Flowered One" in Spanish. He continued to explore Florida, but had to leave after being attacked by the Calusa Indians. He went back to Puerto Rico and then to Spain.

The Fountain of Youth is a mythical fountain with magic water which when drunk will cause a person to live forever. Tales of such a fountain have been recounted around the world for thousands of years.

Legacy

Although Francisco Coronado’s journey was seen as a failure in his lifetime, he is recognized today for many achievements. He claimed many parts of land for Spain. He and his men were also the first Europeans to live among the Pueblo Indians, explore the Great Plains, and see the Grand Canyon. His description of the areas he explored helped create updated maps of the lands. Coronado’s explorations helped open up the southwestern United States for future Spanish colonization.

Balboa's First Expedition

Balboa's main voyage began in 1501. He and his crew sailed across the Atlantic Ocean and reached the northern coast of South America, near what is now Venezuela and Colombia. They traded with the native people they met along the way. However, their ship was damaged, and they had to sail to Santo Domingo, Hispaniola. There, they were imprisoned for trading with the natives, but were soon released. Balboa decided to stay in the New World and lived on the island of Hispaniola for eight years. In 1510, Balboa joined another expedition to the Pearl Coast. He had to sneak onto the ship because he owed a lot of money and wasn't allowed to join. When they arrived, they found that the settlement they were supposed to help was abandoned. Balboa and the others set up a new colony in Darien, in what is now Panama. Balboa was chosen as the new leader and governor.

de Soto's First Expedition

In 1530, Hernando de Soto joined another expedition to explore more of Central and South America. This time, he was with Francisco Pizarro in Peru. The land was home to the Inca Empire. Over the next few years, de Soto helped conquer the Inca civilization. The Spaniards had better weapons, and diseases infected the Inca, causing their army numbers to fall. They captured Atahualpa, chief of the Incas, and took a lot of silver and gold from him. After this, de Soto took over the Inca capital city of Cuzco. He was the first European to enter this city. He took a lot of the riches for himself. Now a very wealthy man, de Soto sailed from Peru in 1535, and got back to Spain in 1536.

Background

Hernando de Soto was born in Spain, but we don't know exactly when. It was sometime between 1496 and 1501. They weren't rich, but they weren't poor either. As a kid, Hernando learned about things like math and history. His parents wanted him to become a priest or lawyer, but de Soto was more interested in adventure. In 1514, Hernando started working for a man named Pedro Árias Dávila. This job gave him the chance to sail to far-off places for adventure. In the same year, de Soto joined Dávila’s expedition to the New World.

After winter ended, Coronado was ready for the second part of his expedition. One of the native slaves had told Coronado of a new land to the northeast. The capital of this land, called Quivira, was said to be very rich. In April 1541, Coronado and his army marched toward Quivira. They soon arrived at the Great Plains where they saw herds of buffalo. They continued across the Northwest part of present-day Texas and Oklahoma and finally arrived at Quivira in present-day Kansas. Coronado spent about a month exploring. They found a village of the Wichita Native American tribe but found none of the riches his slave had told him. The slave confessed that he made up the story, so Coronado had him executed. Coronado returned to Cibola, where he spent another winter. After winter passed, they began their journey back to Mexico. His mission had been unsuccessful. In 1544, Mendoza, disappointed with Coronado’s failure, had him removed as governor. Coronado went to Mexico City, where he lived a quiet life as a councilman.

Finding the Cities of Gold?

Balboa's Main Expedition

Balboa heard stories about a great ocean beyond the South American Mountains. Even though he was no longer in favor with the king of Spain, he decided to search for this ocean himself. In September 1513, he and his crew fought their way through the jungle and finally saw the ocean. Balboa was the first European to discover this ocean, which he named the South Sea. Today, we call it the Pacific Ocean.