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Grammar

Francesco Caggiula

Created on July 6, 2023

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Grammar Review

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Index

Relative Clauses

Passive Forms

Reported Speech

Defining and Non-defining

Al tenses

Third and Mixed Conditionals

Have/Get something done

Gerunds and Infinitive

Contextualize your topic

Expressing Wishes and Regrets

Giving Advice / Expressing Preferences

Contextualize your topic

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Relative Clauses

Defining, Non-defining and Participle Clauses.

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Relative Clauses

Non-Defining relative clauses

Defining relative clauses

Participle Clauses

Who / That Which / That Whose Where

people things and animals or an entire clause possession places

Who / That Which / That Whose Where

people things and animals possession places

Present participle Past Participle

replaces an active verb replaces a passive verb

=defining and non defining

The defining relative clause "who is an experienced chef" provides essential information about Sarah. It specifies that Sarah is the person being referred to and that she possesses the quality of being an experienced chef.

Defining Relative Clause Sarah, who is an experienced chef, prepared a delicious meal for the guests.

The non-defining relative clause "which was created by a renowned artist" provides additional, non-essential information about the painting. It is set off by commas and offers additional details about the painting, such as its creator.

Non-defining Relative Clause The painting, which was created by a renowned artist, was sold for a record price at the auction.

The participle clause "Amazed by the stunning view" describes the state or action of the hikers. It provides additional information about their condition or feelings, explaining why they decided to take a break and appreciate the scenery. The participle "amazed" modifies the hikers and emphasizes the cause-and-effect relationship between their amazement and their decision to pause.

Participle ClauseAmazed by the stunning view, the hikers decided to take a break and appreciate the scenery.

Quiz time

choose between defining or non-defining relative clause

Quiz time

choose between defining or non-defining relative clause

Quiz time

choose between defining or non-defining relative clause

Quiz time

choose between defining or non-defining relative clause

Quiz time

choose between defining or non-defining relative clause

Presentation

CHOOSE the correct alternative to complete the sentences.

Do you know the reason they lost every match during the championship?

why

that

He's the most brilliant footballer I've ever seen play.

The team employed a new coach, team performed very well last year.

whose

We went to the gym we practiced all afternoon.

where

They didn't know all the celebs were invited to the sports programme.

who

Frequent Mistakes

Correct the mistakes

My new helmet, which I have just bought, has a scratch on the left side.
All the equipment which you ordered it online has arrived.

Then choose the correct alternative in the rule below.

When there is a relative pronoun, you need / don't need a second pronoun in the relative clause. Submit

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Passive Forms

Step into the shadowy realm of language where actions recede and recipients emerge—the captivating world of the passive form awaits.

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Read the sentences

The rules for artificial intelligence systems are inspired by the ‘three laws of robotics’.

They were introduced by the writer Isaac Asimov in 1942.
A robot must obey the orders that are given to it by human beings.

What is the subject in each sentence?
What is the activator or agent of the verb?
Which preposition introduces the agent?

The Passive is used when...

the action is more important than the agent.

Reports say that exams were marked too strictly this year.

the performer of the action, or agent, is unknown.

An important painting has been stolen from the National Gallery.

it is not important to know who the agent is.

It’s natural to ask how and why AI should be developed.

the agent has already been mentioned

Shouldn’t steps be taken to at least slow down progress in the interest of caution?

the agent is obvious to the reader or listener and therefore unnecessary.

My second rule is that it must be clearly stated that an AI system is not human.

Examples

A delicious meal was prepared by the chef.

The chef prepared a delicious meal.
They built a beautiful house by the lake.
The students are studying for their exams.
He fixed the broken bicycle.
She wrote an inspiring poem about hope.

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A beautiful house was built by them by the lake.

The exams are being studied for by the students.

The broken bicycle was fixed by him.

An inspiring poem about hope was written by her.

Convert the sentences into passive

A delicious cake was baked by her for the party last night.
A new car has been bought by them for their family.
A famous museum will be visited by us during our vacation next week.
French has been studied by him for six months.
A difficult concept is explained to the students every day by the teacher.

She baked a delicious cake for the party last night.
They have bought a new car for their family.
We will visit a famous museum during our vacation next week.
He has been studying French for six months.
The teacher explains a difficult concept to the students every day.

Error correction

Find the mistakes in the text and correct them

The new building is being constructed by the skilled workers. The plans were designed by a famous architect. The materials were selected carefully for their quality. The project was completed on time and within budget. However, mistakes were made during the construction process. Several issues arose due to poor communication. The problems were solved promptly by the project manager. The work is not finished yet, but it will be completed soon. Feedback was received from the clients and was taken into consideration. Overall, the project was considered a success despite the challenges.

The new building are being construct by the skilled workers. The plans was design by a famous architect. The materials was select carefully for their quality. The project were complete on time and within budget. However, mistakes was make during the construction process. Several issues was arise due to poor communication. The problems was solve promptly by the project manager. The work is not finish yet, but it will be complete soon. Feedbacks was receive from the clients and was take into consideration. Overall, the project was consider a success despite the challenges.

Error correction

Find the mistakes in the text and correct them

Verbs that can be followed by two complements are often referred to as "double object verbs" or "ditransitive verbs." Here are some examples of such verbs: Give: He gave me a book. Show: She showed her friend a picture. Send: They sent their parents a postcard. Tell: The teacher told us a story. Offer: The company offered him a job. Bring: Please bring me a glass of water. Grant: The committee granted him permission. Buy: She bought her daughter a new bicycle. Teach: He taught his students a valuable lesson. Offer: They offered the guests a warm welcome.

Passive

Direct object Indirect object

with verbs followed by two objects

They sent Susan an email.

Susan was sent an email.

An email was sent to Susan.

They sent an email to Susan.

La prima costruzione è più frequente, soprattutto quando il soggetto è un pronome.

These verbs can take both a direct object and an indirect object to express the recipient or beneficiary of the action.

Pass, Offer, Lend, Pay, Sing, Cook, Show, Promise, Write, Explain, Read, Buy, Bring, Make, Tell, Send, Offer, Leave, Grant, Find.

Some additional examples of double object verbs:

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Reported Speech

Unlock the power of language and dive into the realm of reported speech, where stories are retold and ideas echo through the ages—join us on a journey of linguistic transformation and enhance your communication skills!

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Match

direct sentences to reported sentences.

He stated: ‘If present trends continue, by 2050 there will be 12 billion metric tons of plastic in landfills.’
A researcher said: ‘This year we’ve hit the limits of nature.’
Lindy to her friend: ‘Tomorrow I’ll have an English test.’
He said: ‘I want to attend this conference about climate action.’

Lindy announced to her friend that she would have an English test on the following day.
He said that he wanted to attend that conference about climate action.
He stated that if the present trends continued, by 2050 there would be 12 billion metric tons of plastic in landfills.
A researcher stated that that year they had hit the limits of nature.

Reported Speech

Reported speech, also known as indirect speech or indirect discourse, is a way of relaying or reporting what someone else has said without using their exact words. It involves paraphrasing or summarizing someone's speech or thoughts, typically introduced by reporting verbs such as "said," "told," or "asked."

In reported speech, the tense, pronouns, and other elements often change to reflect the perspective of the reporting speaker. It is commonly used in storytelling, interviews, and when recounting conversations or expressing someone else's thoughts or opinions.

Past simple and Past continuous might not change tense from direct to reported speech.

She said (that) she was having lunch when Sarah arrived

"I was having lunch when Sarah arrrived". She said.

Past Perfect never changes tense from direct to reported speech.

She said that she had warned me

"I had warned you". She said.

Which

Reporting Verbs

Match

direct sentences to reported sentences.

A representative of Team WIN insisted that manufacturers take back their computers and televisions.
They agreed to create The Plastic Patrol, beginning their global effort to make a difference.
They suggest learning to make crafts out of recycled plastic.
She accused the local authorities of doing too little.

is followed by the - ing form?

Suggest

is followed by infinitive?

Agree

is followed by a preposition + the -ing form?

Accuse

takes a direct object infinitive?

Insist

Reported Orders and Requests

Switch the engine off. Show me the driving licence, please.

Would you bring me a bottle of champagne, please?

A policeman stopped me because I didn't see the red light. He told me to switch the enginge off and he told me to show him my driving licence.

He's asked to bring me a bottle of champagne.

Ask replaces the modal verbs can, could, would and will.

When we report a order or a request we switch from the imperative to the infinitive.

tell + name/pronoun + infinitive.

She told us to do exercise 4

"Will you carry the bag, please?" (request)

Mum asked me to carry the bag.

"Do the exercise 4"

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Third Conditional

Something that could be happened if some conditions had been realized

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Examples

If + past perfect

Would have + past participle

If + had + subject

Would + have + subject + past participle?

If + hadn't + past participle

Wouldn't have + past participle

Formation

If you had checked your emails you'd have known the strike

Criticizing

I wouldn't have missed the train if I'd got up earlier

Complaining

Would Have

She'd (would) have told you if she'd (had) known.

Could Have

He could have won the race if his car hadn't been broken.

Might have

They might have spent a fortnight with us if they had had time.

Mixed Conditional

third conditional

second conditional

'If I had taken that job offer, I would be living in a different city now.'

This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.

Mixed Conditional

If I had studied I would have my driving license. (but I didn't study and now I don't have my license)
I would be a millionaire now if I had taken that job. (but I didn't take the job and I'm not a millionaire)
If you had spent all your money, you wouldn't buy this jacket. (but you didn't spend all your money and now you can buy this jacket)

third conditional

second conditional

This type of mixed conditional refers to an unreal past condition and its probable result in the present.

Examples

If you had crashed the car, you might be in trouble.
I could be a millionaire now if I had invested in ABC Plumbing.
If I had learned to ski, I might be on the slopes right now.

third conditional

second conditional

In these mixed conditional sentences, you can also use modals in the main clause instead of would to express the degree of certainty, permission, or a recommendation about the outcome.

Past result of present or continuing condition

Form

In this second type of mixed conditional sentence, the tense in the 'if' clause is the simple past, and the tense in the main clause is the perfect conditional.

If I wasn't afraid of spiders, I would have picked it up.

If we didn't trust him we would have sacked him months ago.
If I wasn't in the middle of another meeting, I would have been happy to help you.

Function

These mixed conditional sentences refer to an unreal present situation and its probable (but unreal) past result. In these mixed conditional sentences, the time in the if clause is now or always and the time in the main clause is before now.

third conditional

second conditional

For example, "If I wasn't afraid of spiders" is contrary to present reality. I am afraid of spiders. "I would have picked it up" is contrary to past reality. I didn't pick it up.

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Have/Get something done

'I had my hair cut last week'

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Have/Get something done

Form

have/get + object + past participle

Use

The past participle is used after have and get to give a passive meaning in a construction which suggest that the subject is taking an active part in any arrangement made.
The past participle shows the real action being carried out. The subject is not doing this action but is causing someone else to do it.

Example

I had/got my watch repaired

I am not repairing the watch but arranging for someone else to do this for me.

Have/Get something done

Use

Examples

The past participle is used after have and get to give a passive meaning in a construction which suggest that the subject is taking an active part in any arrangement made.
The past participle shows the real action being carried out. The subject is not doing this action but is causing someone else to do it.

I had/got my watch repaired.

I am not repairing the watch but arranging for someone else to do this for me.

I had/got my hair cut.

I'm having my car fixed by a mechanic.

We're having the whole flat renovated.Where do you get your shoes repaired?The store had al its windows smashed.This software needs to be upgraded/needs upgrading.

Have and Get can be conjugated in all tenses.
Get is used in a more colloquial tone.
Have and Get can be used as synonyms of experience, go through.
Need can be followed by both infinitive and -ing form

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Gerunds and Infinitives

I’m an awesome subtitle, ideal for giving more context about the topic at hand

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Gerunds

The gerund is the -ing form for a verb: playing

Complement of appear, be and seem

Idiomatic expression with Go

Subject

Walking or cycling during, but not before learning, helped new foreign language vocabulary stick.

She appeared dancing gracefully on the stage.

Go fishing, go jogging, go shopping.

When verbs, nouns or adjectives are followed by a proposition, the -ing form must be used after them.

Object of a preposition

After these verbs

Doctors recommend eating healthy food to prevent cardiovascular diseases.

The brain is often described as being 'like a muscle'.

The children became more adept at ignoring distractions.

Infinitives

The infinitive is the base form of the verb preceded by to: to play

With the construction It

Infinitive of purpose

Subject

To drive when drunk is dangerous.

It is dangerous to drive when drunk.

He came here (in order to) study English.

Verb+ (pro)noun+ infinitive

Certain adjectives

Some verbs

The police ordered the boys to stop

Tom expects to earn a lot of money next year.

I'm sorry to hear you failed the exam

Interactive question

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Expressing Wishes and Regrets

"I wish I could have attended the concert." "I regret not studying harder for the exam."

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Expressing Wishes and Regrets

wishes fo the future or complaints

regrets about a past situation

wishes for a Present situation to be different

If only I had known it was going to train

I wish I were a genius

if only you would stop talking

I wish I could come with you

+ info

If only / wish

wishes for a present situation to be different

if only / wish + subject + past simple / could + base form

to express the speaker's wishes, regrets or complaints

followed by a noun clause without that

if only is stronger than wish

I wish I were richIf only I could speak French

If only / wish

Regrets about a PAST situation

if only / wish + subject + past perfect

I wish I had not said that stupid thing

I said something stupid (in the past) and I regret it (now)

If only / wish

Wishes for the FUTURE or complaints

if only / wish + subject + would + base form

Wishes for something in the FUTURE to happen or change

The desire comes form the speaker's present frustration on annoyance.

I wish it would stop raining.If only you would hurry up

We use this structure on situations that don't depend on the subject

We don't use it when the subject of wish = the subject of would

She wishes she got better marks and NOT She wishes she would get better marks.

Interactive question

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Prefer, would rather, Had better

expressing preferences and giving advice

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expressing preferences

prefer + noun + to + noun
prefer + -ing form + to + -ing form
prefer + infinitive + rather than + base form / noun
would prefer + inf /noun (rather than + base form / noun)

Prefer

would rather

would rather + base form (+ than + base form)
would rather + different subject + past simple

expressing preferences

had better

Giving advice

had better + base form

info