Academic Writing

EmpiricalResearch

Types of Academic Writing

Meta -Analysis

This presentation gives a brief overview of the most common types of writing you might encounter during your student experience and beyond. What is more, this presentation will have you consider the characteristics of each writing style and what makes them effective towards their unique goals.

Policy Paper

Literature Review

Select a writing type to learn more. After all writing types have been viewed, complete the knowledge check below.

Opinion Paper

Knowledge Check

Empirical Research

Empirical research is considered the gold standard in academic circles. Publication of empirical evidence in top tier journals is highly sought after and a large aim of research institutions. Empirical research is one way of knowing and often elicits formulaic writing. But, since it is often considered the best form of “evidence”, the bulk of your papers’ sources will probably be empirical research. Further, it might be your own objective to publish empirical research.

Why write it?

Empirical research is a type of paper or journal article used to publish observed and measured circumstance of experience, rather than theories or beliefs. Empirical research follows the general form of: introduction, methods, results, and discussion. The key here is evidence. Empirical evidence may be analyzed using quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical) methods. Empirical methods are considered objective. This means anyone who repeats the empirical researchers’ processes should come to the same conclusions.

What is it?

Published Examples

Cruz, R. A., Kulkarni, S. S., & Firestone, A. R. (2021). A QuantCrit Analysis of

Context, Discipline, Special Education, and Disproportionality. AERA Open. https://doi.org/10.1177/23328584211041354

Mansour, N. (2020). The dissonance between scientific evidence,

diversity and dialogic pedagogy in the science classroom. International Journal of Science Education, 42(2), 190-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/09500693.2019.1706114

Meta-Analysis

Why write it?

Meta-analyses are an important way of interrogating common research strands. For example, Sisk et al. (2018) investigate the efficacy of the highly publicized growth mind-set. While growth mind-set interventions might sound appealing to teachers and administrators, the evidence of efficacy is not as straightforward. Sisk et al. (2018) can answer the question of if growth mind-set works and under what circumstances it works, only because they analyze multiple studies that use growth mind-set interventions. While you might think that reporting other people’s research might be easy, the article search and coding strategies used in high quality meta-analysis are often very time consuming.

A meta-analysis compiles data from multiple independent studies on the same subject in order to examine common trends of the data. Meta-analyses generally follow the same form described in empirical research: introduction, methods, results, and discussion. However, the methods of a meta-analysis will detail the research team’s search process, including their criteria for a study’s inclusion in their analysis, as well as the team’s process for compiling the data. The results of a meta-analysis will often report effect sizes of included studies, answering the question what works? A meta-analysis is not a report of original research; instead, it is a report of the outcomes of multiple studies.

What is it?

Cheng, L., Ritzhaupt, A. D., & Antonenko, P. (2019). Effects of the flipped classroom

Published Examples

instructional strategy on students’ learning outcomes: a meta-analysis. Educational Technology Research and Development, 67(4), 793-824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-018-9633-7

Sisk, V. F., Burgoyne, A. P., Sun, J., Butler, J. L., & Macnamara, B. N. (2018).

To What Extent and Under Which Circumstances Are Growth Mind-Sets Important to Academic Achievement? Two Meta-Analyses. Psychological Science, 29(4), 549–571. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797617739704

Policy Paper

The writing in policy papers is non-technical and to the point. When writing something intended for a policy audience, it’s important to remember that policy members may not have a background in research; therefore, you will not impress them with your knowledge of complicated statistical analyses or discipline-specific jargon. Policy papers are intended to inform policy makers and other stakeholders about a particular issue and provide guidance towards creating new policy. Policy papers and op-eds are written for a layperson, or someone who does not have technical training in the discipline you are writing about. An easy way of assessing whether your writing is understood by a layperson is to ask a friend or family member (who has limited experience with your topic) to read your work and explain in their own words what your point is.

Why write it?

Policy papers translate academic knowledge into policy recommendations. An effective policy paper focuses on a specific policy issue and uses empirical research as evidence for creating or modifying policies. Policy papers explicitly frame an issue for its readers by communicating the researchers’ perception of the problem and its solutions.

What is it?

Published Examples

Benner, M., Brown, C., & Jeffrey, A. (2019). (rep.). Elevating student voice in education. Center

for American Progress. https://americanprogress.org/wp- content/uploads/2019/08/StudentVoice-report.pdf? for_ga=2.86942736.926022955.1655341411-716694257.1655230050.

Equity, and Transformative Learning & Development: A More Powerful Conceptualization of the Contributors to Youth Success. The Readiness Project. https://soldalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/Thriving-Equity-and-Learning-Development.pdf

Osher, D., Pittman, K., Young, J., Smith, H., Moroney, D., & Irby, M. (rep.). Thriving, Robust

Literature Review

Literature reviews are NOT merely a synopsis of what has already been written on a topic. Instead, researchers often write literature reviews to offer an evaluation of previously published work and develop a unique perspective on the topic. Literature reviews help frame a particular research agenda, indicate the gaps in the literature (what has not been studied), and provide a guide for what should come next.

Why write it?

A literature review is a comprehensive and critical summary of previously published work on a certain topic. Literature reviews are different from meta-analyses. While meta-analyses use analytical methods to compile secondary data, literature reviews provide an overview of current knowledge, ideas, and theories of a specific topic. The literature that makes up a literature review often takes the form of a network of major works with studies that respond to or build on these major works.

What is it?

Published Examples

Coulby, D. (2006). Intercultural education: theory and practice. Intercultural

Education, 17(3), 245-257. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675980600840274

Pasquinelli, E. (2012), Neuromyths: Why Do They Exist and Persist?. Mind,

Brain, and Education, 6: 89-96. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-228X.2012.01141.x

Opinion Paper

Why write it?

Op-eds are an opportunity to show your unique voice and opinions on an issue. Unlike “objective” empirical work, the whole point of an op-ed is to be opinionated and use strong, impassioned language. Like policy papers, op-eds are written for a lay person, meaning they should not use complex language. In general, op-eds contain a clear “hook” in the beginning of the piece to capture the audience’s attention, then go on to elevate the writers’ ideas and knowledge about a specific problem. Check out https://www.theopedproject.org/ if you’re interested in writing op-eds.

Op-ed, short for “opposite the editorial page”, is a piece written to express the opinion of the author. Op-eds use strong, informed and focused language to communicate a relevant issue to a specific audience. While op-eds allow for the writer to be opinionated, convincing readers requires using research to ground claims. Op-eds are often short, around 700-800 words, with a very clear point of view and a strong author voice.

What is it?

Published Examples

Bloomfield-Cucchiara, M. (2022, March 8). Too many Americans don’t understand

what happens in their schools. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/08/opinion/covid-schools-disruption.html?action=click&module=RelatedLinks&pgtype=Article

Lobdell, J. (2018, May 6). Where edtech and its investors miss the mark. EdSurge

News. https://www.edsurge.com/news/2018-05-06-where-edtech-and-its-investors-miss-the-mark.

Knowledge Check

Types of Academic Writing

Each of the following excerpts provide clues about the audience, purpose, and style characteristic of the five types of academic writing covered in this interactive. While you might argue that certain excerpts could be categorized as multiple types of academic writing, choose the best characterization for each excerpt.

Start

Question 1/5

Balfanz — Expanding AmeriCorps to Help Those Still in Schools

Balfanz, R. (2020, June 24). Using recent graduates to strategically expand Americorps will help those still in school. Baltimore Sun.

https://www.baltimoresun.com/opinion/op-ed/bs-ed-op-0625-expand-americorps-20200624-yv6pq7z6znhdhnceumkg3ou26m-story.html

Question 2/5

Brookings Institution’s Task Force on Next Generation Community Schools (2021). Addressing

Addressing education inequality with a next generation of community schools

education inequality with a next generation of community schools: A blueprint for mayors, states, and the federal government. Brookings Institution. https://www.brookings.edu/wp-content/uploads/2021/02/Next-generation-community-schools-task-force-report-FINAL.pdf

Question 3/5

Ennis, R. P., Royer, D. J., Lane, K. L., & Dunlap, K. D. (2020). Behavior-Specific Praise in Pre-K–12

Behavior-Specific Praise in Pre-K–12 Settings: Mapping the 50-Year Knowledge Base

Settings: Mapping the 50-Year Knowledge Base. Behavioral Disorders, 45(3), 131–147. https://doi.org/10.1177/0198742919843075

Question 4/5

Weiner, B. (1979). A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 71(1), 3–25.

A theory of motivation for some classroom experiences

https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.71.1.3

Question 5/5

Lehman, B., Thompson, J., Davis, S., & Carlson, J. M. (2019). Affective Images of Climate Change. Front

Affective images of climate change

Psychol, 10, 960. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00960

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