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African American Activists
African American Activists
1863- 1883- 1884-1892-1895-1901- 1904-1914-1926- 1930-1933-1934-1937-1946-1952
Charlotte L. Brown
W.E.B. DuBois
William Monroe Trotter
Ida B. Wells
LangstonHughes
DorothyHeight
NellieGriswold Francis
Booker T. Washington
JamesBaldwiniso
Malcolm X
Percy EllisSutton
HankAaron
Mary McleodBethune
Bayard Rustin
Anna J. Cooper
Anna J. Cooper is best known for being a distinguished black scholar and knowing that black women's education was needed for world development.
Ida B. Wells is famed for her detailed mapping of lynchings around the US and her fight for women's suffrage.
Malcolm X: He was a man with many responsibilities; a minister, heavily involved in demanding civil rights, and a Black nationalist, Malcolm X fought tirelessly for the rights of black people because of past racist abuse he and his family had suffered.
W.E.B. DuBois is notorious for being the first African American to go to and receive a Ph.D. from Havard and being a founding member of the NAACP.
Charlotte L. Brown is best known for being the first black woman to legally challenge and win a case against segregation laws.
Percy Ellis Sutton: Not only was he one of America's best-known lawyers, but he was also the highest-ranking African-American elected official in New York City in 1966
James Baldwin: As a Civil Rights activist and author, James Baldwin joined the Congress of Racial Equality, then traveled acros s the American South, lecturing many on his view of racial inequality.
Bayard Rustin: Fighting for many things, such as worker's rights and racial equality, one of the things Rustin was most known for was his planning of the 1963 March on Washington. He also advocated for gay rights.
Hank Aaron: Being an African American star on a white team, Hank Aaron was also very prominent in the Civil Rights Movement as a baseball player.
William Monroe Trotter was a civil rights activist known for being one of the many co-founders of the NAACP.
Mary Mcleod Bethune was a philanthropist, educator, womanist, and activist who helped pave the way for other Black female activists.
Booker T. Washington is best known for being an influential advocate for black people and passing expectations even though he was born into slavery.
Langston Hughes was a poet, social activist, playwright, and novelist recognized as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance.iso
Dorothy Height was a women's and civil rights activist who mainly fought against women's suffrage, unemployment, and illiteracy.
Nellie Griswold Francis was a civic leader, suffragist, and activist who founded Everywoman Suffrage Club.
african american activists
1955 1958 1960 1961 1963
Ernestine Eckstein
Julian Bond
Mary Louise Smith
John Lewis
Stokely Carmichael
Julian Bond was an activist, politician, professor, and much more. He is also credited for developing the SNCC and was a chairman of the NAACP for 11 years.
Known later in his life as Kwame Ture, he helped organize the Freedom rides of 1961 and later became associated with the Black Panther Party, coining the infamous term "Black Power!".
Ernestine Eckstein was an openly lesbian activist who fought for homosexual rights and was on the committee for an organization centered around lesbian equality.
Mary Smith was an early civil rights activist: she was one of many people that refused to get up from their seats prior to the same incident involving Rosa Parks.
John Lewis was a prominent black political figure who served for over 33 years as a United States House of Representatives member. He also co-founded the Student Nonviolence Coordinating Committee.
Charlotte L. Brown
1863-1867
Charlotte L. Brown was a black civil rights activist born in Maryland in 1839. She a pioneer in challenging racial segregation in the United States after filing a winning lawsuit against a streetcar company in the 1860s after being forcibly removed from a segregated streetcar. Her lawsuit was an event that contributed to bringing black activists in both southern and northern cities to protest segregation on public transportation in the 19th and 20th centuries.
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1883-1961
W.E.B. DuBois
1883-1961
William Edward Burghardt, more famously known as W.E.B Du Bois, was a teacher, writer, sociologist, and activist born in 1868. His primary focus was to help provide African Americans with the things they needed to receive an education so they could become successful without being heavily dependent on other people. In 1895, he received a Ph.D. from Harvard University, a first for black people. After receiving his Ph.D., he began working as a professor at Clark Atlanta University. While working there, he began becoming more well-known when he openly disagreed with fellow activist Booker T. Washington about their opinions on education for African Americans. Du Bois believed in African Americans engaging in more technical education, while Washington felt they should get more hands-on jobs. He was also noted as being one of the co-founders of the NAACP in 1909, which is a civil rights organization that works to better the lives of African Americans.
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Anna J. Cooper
1892
Anna J Cooper was an activist, teacher, and writer who stood for African American and women's rights. She was born on August 10th, 1858, into slavery in Raleigh, North Carolina. She was the daughter of a slave and an owner. She began her education at nine years old at Saint Augustine's Normal School and Collegiate Institute. She went on to gain a masters in mathematics at Oberlin College in Ohio. Once a graduate, she began her professional career as a teacher, teaching at Washington Colored High School. While teaching, Anna wrote a book that's focus was obtaining equality in education for Black women, but it ended up benefiting the entire Black race. The success of her book was very beneficial as it allowed her to lecture people all over the nation and inform them how vital equality was for society. She even went as far as becoming a high school principal in 1902, even though the Washington school board shot down her beneficial moves for black students. Anna then went on to co-found organizations such as the Colored Women's League in 1892 and created colored "branches" of organizations so that more people of color could join. She also went back to school in 1911 at Columbia University and in 1924 at the University of Paris, where she obtained a doctorate in philosophy. Anna J Cooper's 105 years of life were very well worthed living as she persisted in fighting for the betterment of her people.
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Booker T. Washington
1895-1915
Booker T. Washington was born in April of 1856, in Virginia. Although born into slavery, he was emancipated along with his family after the Civil War in 1865. He later attended the Hampton Institute and was noted as being a brilliant student, and was requested back in 1879 by the school's founder to become a teacher. Booker was a part of many African American businesses and organizations and was an original founder of the National Negro Business League. In 1881, he founded Tuskegee University, an HBCU in Alabama, where he served as president for over 30 years. He wrote five books in his lifetime, including Up From Slavery, arguably his most famous book, in which he documented his life from being a slave to his life post-Civil War. He gained a lot of recognition in 1895 after giving a controversial speech known as the "Atlanta Compromise," in which he described his acceptance of segregation as a "separated but equal" mindset. He believed that African Americans should practically disregard the negative connotation of segregation and earn their respect, rights, and equality through hard work and vocational training. This caused tension between him and activist W.E.B. DuBois, who completely opposed this idea, believing in integration and the importance of obtaining an education. Washington went on to be a "race advisor" for President Roosevelt and Taft, but his popularity went down around 1913 when newly elected President Wilson decided to move America forward as a country and worked towards integration and equality for black people. Booker was the President of Tuskegee University until his death, caused by heart failure, in 1915. Though some of his beliefs weren't favorable to some, he still paved the way for generations of African Americans.
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William Monroe Trotter
1900-1910
William Monroe Trotter was born in April of 1872, in Ohio, to two parents who were largely involved in the race movement. He went to college at Harvard University, where he graduated with honors for his studies in international banking and financing. He was a significant civil rights activist, infamously known for his first major political challenge of the political dominance of Booker T. Washington, the man who founded the Tuskegee Institute. Trotter was an African-American journalist and vocal advocate for racial injustice. He was the founder of the Boston Guardian, the National Negro Suffrage League, the Niagara Movement, and the Negero-American Political League. He also helped form what we know today as the NAACP. William passed away in Boston at age 62, leaving a legacy of advocacy and determination.
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Ida B. Wells
1884-1916
Ida B. Wells was an African American activist who was a leader at the beginning of the civil rights movement. She is well known for her lead in an anti-lynching crusade in Washington, DC, in the 1890s, and she also was a co-founder of the NAACP. Ida's gift was her writing; she used her skills as a journalist to inform the nation of the mistreatment of African Americans in the south. She was born in 1862 in Holly Springs, Mississippi, to two parents who were very active in politics. They were the ones who taught her the importance of having a good education. Due to yellow fever, Ida lost both her parents and brother but gained a new responsibility. At only 16 years old, she was forced to take on the role of the head of her family. She took on jobs such as teaching while still being a student on her own. She ended up relocating to Memphis, Tennessee, where she still taught but not for long due to laws in Memphis. At this point in her life, she chose Journalism as her profession. In 1889, she purchased a share in the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight newspaper. This move helped her become the first female editor and co-owner of this Black newspaper. She wrote under the alias name "Lola." Throughout the 1880-90s, Ida B. Wells began to record the mass amount of lynching cases and write about them for the rest of the world to be informed. These writings led to her march in 1913 in Washington D.C. for the suffrage of Blacks in America. Ida will forever be remembered for her dedication to writing and her beneficial braveness for the fair treatment of African Americans.
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Mary Mcleod Bethune
1904-1955
Mary Bethune was born July 10, 1875, to former slaves post-Civil War and was 1 out of 16 children. She attended Moody Bible Institute as well as Barber-Scotia College and would balance attending school while working in the cotton fields. Throughout her life, she was an educator, political activist, and organizer. Mary went on to found Bethune-Cookman University in 1904, one of the first schools for African American girls, and was the school's president for over 20 years. In 1940, Bethune became the Vice President of the NAACP. Aside from her civil rights achievements, she also was a successful businesswoman, co-owning a resort and an insurance company. Mary Bethune died in 1955 in her Florida home due to a heart attack. She had dedicated her life to ensuring African- Americans has the right to education, free from discrimination.
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Nellie Griswold Francis
1914-1921
Nellie Francis was an African-American suffragist, civil rights activist, and civic leader. She was born November 7, 1874, in Nashville, Tennessee. In her early stages of life, she enjoyed singing and acting and later got a drama scholarship for college. Later into her activism years, Francis was active in the NAACP and Urban League and founded the Everywoman's Suffrage Club. This club/organization helped win women's rights to vote. An important bill Nellie is known for is the Minnesota Anti-Lynching bill passed in 1921. She was friends with other known civic leaders during this time, including Booker T. Washington, Ida B. Wells, and more. Her impact on the civil rights movement is one that is greatly appreciated. Francis and her husband, while living in America, were targeted by the Ku Klux Klan. Later in her life, she and her husband moved to Liberia, Africa. Francis died in 1969.
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Langston Hughes
1926-1964
Langston Hughes was born in February of 1902, in Missouri. He was an inspirational figure during the Harlem Renaissance, credited for being an influential African American writer. Langston's subjects of his writings were based on the African American experience ranging from poetry, plays, novels, and newspaper columns. He began his writing career at a young age in New York, where he attended Columbia University, and wrote his famous article "The Negro was in Vogue" at the age of 19. Though he eventually dropped out of the school, he gained notice from New York publishers, which led to him becoming well-known in the creative community in Harlem. He later graduated from Lincoln University in 1929, going on to compose plays and short stories. Lincoln wrote The Chicago Defender in a column leading newspaper during the rise of the Civil Rights movement. Langston was part of an all-black group that wanted to produce a film about African Americans in the United States; however, the film was never made. Langston was given the opportunity to travel all around the world; China, Japan, Korea, the Soviet Union, and parts of the Caribbean. Langston Hughes died in May of 1967 in New York City due to cancer.
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Dorothy Height
1930-1957
Dorothy Height was a racial and women's activist and educator from 1957 to 1998. She was born on March 24, 1912, in Richmond, Virginia. A few years later, her family moved to Rankin, Pennsylvania, where she thrived academically. Dorothy was eventually awarded a college scholarship. She was accepted into Barnard College but was denied admission because the school did not accept African Americans. Height went on to earn a bachelor's degree in education and a master's degree in psychology from New York University . Dorothy began her career as a social worker in Harlem, New York. She subsequently became a member of the Harlem Young Women's Christian Association's staff (YWCA). Height quickly rose to the position of leader in the local organization. She developed a variety of programs and pressed the organization to integrate YWCA facilities across the country. Height was the president of the National Council of Negro Women, which was founded by Dr. Mary McLeod Bethune. During the Civil Rights era, as President of the NCNW, she was instrumental in advancing racial justice for African Americans. In 1963, she helped organize the March on Washington. Worked with several civil rights leaders to persuade presidents to desegregate schools and put black women in positions of power.
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Percy Ellis Sutton
1933-2009
Percy Ellis Sutton was born in November of 1920, in San Antonio. Percy was the youngest child of 15 children. Percy takes after his father by being an activist in the civil rights movement, and he was also a lawyer. As a child, his family was dedicated to civil rights. At the age of 13, he was attacked by the police for passing out leaflets for the NAACP in an all-white neighborhood. Later, he then joined the Boy Scouts of America, which was a key factor in shaping his life. He was ranked Eagle Scout in 1936 and awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award. Percy attended Prairie View A&M University but got his LL.B. in 1950 from Columbia Law School and Brooklyn Law School. Percy became one of the best lawyers throughout the 1950s and 1960s; he even represented Malcolm X in 1965. He then moved to the Harlem community, where he was the leader of Harlem Clubhouse after spending time in jail with other activists. While living in New York, he was involved in the New York Assembly, and in 1966 he was elected to be Borough President of Manhattan, which he stopped serving in 1977. In 1987, the NAACP awarded Percy Sutton the Spingarn Medal for outstanding achievement by an African American. Percy Sutton died in New York in late 2009 at the age of 89. Although he has passed, he will always be known as the highest-ranking African American elected.
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Hank Aaron
1934-1976
Hank Aaron was a legendary American baseball player; he became highly decorated, both through sports and societal achievements. Born in 1934 in Mobile, Alabama, Hank experienced many instances of racism and prejudice. The Ku Klux Klan would frequent his childhood neighborhood, interrupting his baseball practices and forcing him to hide away in his house until they had left the area. He didn't let that hinder his efforts to play professionally, and after hearing a speech from Jackie Robinson, Aaron decided to make that his goal. He started small, playing in semi-pro and minor leagues, but became recognized by larger baseball organizations quickly due to his hard work. His sports career led him to many places, including Wisconsin, where he was highly respected and, unfamiliar to him, treated equally. Contrastly, he was soon again re-exposed to the harsh Jim Crow laws of the South, and encountered white teammates who would refuse to dress or even play with him. While playing for the Jacksonville Tars following the assassination of MLK, he requested a moment of silence, but his plea was unapologetically disregarded. He was dehumanized during games, and once he was nearing the home run record set by Babe Ruth, he received death threats for himself and his family. Despite all of this, Aaron went on to be acknowledged for various achievements, including being inducted Hall of Fame, the Thurgood Marshall Lifetime Achievement Award, presented by the NAACP, and the Medal of Freedom, awarded by President Bush in 2002 for his humanitarian efforts. Hank passed away in 2021, but his legacy lives on, partially through the Hank Aaron Chasing the Dream Fund, which provides financial support for young aspiring children in Milwaukee.
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Bayard Rustin
1937-1984
Bayard Rustin was born in Pennsylvania on March 17, 1912, and was raised by his grandparents, who were associated with the NAACP, and often visited with influential black leaders like Mary Bethune and W.E.B. DuBois. He truly began his activist career after joining the YCL (Youth Communist League) while in college in New York in the 1930s. In 1941, after leaving the organization, he was appointed as a lead organizer of the March on Washington and attributed to many other associations, such as the International Rescue Committee, the Socialist Party of America, and the Fellowship of Reconciliation. He believed in nonviolence, racial equality in jobs, and gay rights. Bayard was arrested in 1953 for suspicion of homosexuality, but following his release, he continued to live his life openly as a gay man. He didn't speak about it much, though, to not detract from the broader issue. He was also credited for his involvement in arranging the Journey of Reconciliation, a precursor to the Freedom Rides of the 1960s. After being wrongfully jailed due to that instance, Rustin wrote to The New York Post, highlighting the poor conditions and "chain gangs" of the prison, demanding change and reform of the system. Shortly after, he became acquainted with Martin Luther King and became an advisor to him in 1956 during the Montgomery bus boycott. After years of essential contributions to the Civil Rights Movement, Bayard went on to adopt his lover, a normalized way of "marrying" as a gay person. He continued to fight for justice and equality until 1997, when he passed due to untimely health complications at 75.
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James Baldwin
1946-1985
James Baldwin was a renowned author and activist who highlighted racial and sexual oppression in America. Born in 1924 in Harlem, New York, James started preaching with his father when he was a teen, and he largely credited his time in the church for giving him a purpose to write. He relocated overseas in 1948 and published his first book while living in France. This was the first of many novels detailing his experience of being brought up as a black man in Harlem, the oppression African Americans faced, and his struggles with sexuality. He returned to the U.S. in 1957, amidst the Civil Rights Movement, and continued to tell the tale of a black man in a racially divided country, writing bestseller Another Country in 1962, along with many other works. He became greatly involved in the fight for equality and was a close friend to other activists at the time, including MLK and Malcolm X. He's noted to have attended the Selma to Montgomery March, the March on Washington, and a literary conference called "The Negro Writers Vision of America." Following their untimely and egregious deaths, Baldwin again left the United States and moved back to France, where he continued writing short stories and essays before passing away from cancer at age 63. Baldwin's numerous stories and other works earned him many awards, and he was, and still is, credited for being a large influence and advocate for equality in the mid-twentieth century.
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Malcolm X
1952-1965
Malcolm X was a political activist best known for his role as a leader in the American civil rights movement. Malcolm Stuart Little was born May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, and was the fourth of eight children. Malcolm and his family were subjected to racist abuse by the KKK when he was younger, which caused his family to relocate. Unfortunately, when Malcolm X was six years old, his father was murdered in what many believe was a premeditated racist attack. His childhood experiences influenced his decision to join the civil rights movement. During the 1950s and early 1960s, Malcolm X emerged as the Nation of Islam's primary spokesman. He arranged temples, began a newspaper, and was the leader of Temple No. 7 in Harlem, New York City. Elijah Muhammad made him the NOI's national representative of Islam, the second most influential position. Malcolm X passionately spoke at rallies, large gatherings, and events. Malcolm X's acceptance of black separatism molded the controversy over how to accomplish freedom and equality in a country that had long denied a segment of its citizens complete protection of their rights. He also laid the groundwork for the late-sixties Black Power movement.
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Mary Louise Smith
1955
Mary Louise Smith was born in 1937 in Alabama. She graduated from St. Jude Educational Institute as a child. At the age of 18, Mary was demanded to submit her bus seat to a white person on October 21, 1955. She declined. Mary was detained, charged with disobeying segregation orders, and fined nine dollars. Her story doesn't end here. Then, in December of the same year, Rosa Parks refused the same order on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. She, her sister, and their children were all participants in a class-action lawsuit for the Montgomery YMCA's desegregation. Mary also participated in the 1963 March on Washington and the 1965 march from Selma to Montgomery for equal voting rights, led by Martin Luther King, Jr. In 2005, Mary attended Rosa's funeral saying, "I had to pay tribute to her. She was our role model."
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John Lewis
1958-2020
John Robert Lewis was born near Troy, Alabama, on February 21, 1940. Political leader and leader of civil rights in the United States best known for chairing the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and leading the 1965 march in Selma, Alabama, that was stopped on the Edmund Pettus Bridge due to violent government officials, referred to as "Bloody Sunday." He went to schools with racial segregation, and his parents told him not to speak out against the injustices of the Jim Crow South. However, he expressed his desire to desegregate Troy State College when he was a teenager, inspired by the brave defiance of other black activists. In addition to participating in sit-ins at segregated public spaces, Lewis studied nonviolent protest. He was elected to succeed Chuck McDew as chairman of SNCC in 1963, and he held that position until 1966. More than 50 marchers were hospitalized due to the brutal assault, including Lewis, whose skull was fractured. Still, he spoke with television reporters before going to the hospital. In 1975, Lewis was presented with the Martin Luther King, Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize. Lewis lost his battle with pancreatic cancer in July 2020. On the day of Lewis's funeral, The New York Times published a valedictory essay at his request. In it, Lewis praised the Black Lives Matter movement and gave future activists his marching orders.
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Julian Bond
1960-2015
Horace Julian Bond was born in Nashville, Tennessee, on January 14, 1940.was best known for fighting for his rightful seat in the Georgia House of Representatives and for being a Black civil rights leader in the United States. Bond went to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, where he led a sit-in to make Atlanta lunch counters more diverse. He was a founding member of the SNCC in 1960 and later held the organization's communications director position. He was elected to the Georgia state legislature in 1965, but the body denied him a seat due to his endorsement of a statement by the SNCC opposing U.S. participation in the Vietnam War. The exclusion was deemed unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in December 1966, and Bond was sworn in on January 9, 1967. From 1967 to 1975, Bond represented Georgia in the House of Representatives, and from 1975 to 1987, he represented Georgia in the Senate. Bond, 75, passed away on August 15 in a Fort Walton Beach, Florida, hospital.
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Stokely Carmichael
1961-1968
Kwame Ture, born in 1941 as Stokely Carmichael, grew up in New York City and attended Howard University in 1961. During his time there, he joined the SNCC and organized and participated in the Freedom Rides of 1961. Ture helped register black voters in the south and helped campaign for black political leaders. Although early on, he was in an alliance with Martin Luther King Jr. and their shared views on nonviolence, in 1967, he stepped down from his position on the SNCC committee. Following this, he realigned himself with the Black Panther Party after being discouraged by the rate of progress African Americans were experiencing toward equality. After being investigated by the FBI and CIA, he eventually left the United States, moved to Guinea, and changed his name to Kwame Ture. He went on to publish his only book, a collection of essays and speeches but was arrested nine years following for accusations of him trying to overthrow the government. Kwame Ture passed away in 1986 after a long battle with cancer at his home in Guinea.
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Ernestine Eckstein
1963-1966
Ernestine Delois Eppenger was born on April 23, 1941, in South Bend, Indiana. She was born to Darnell and Cecelia Eppenger, and had 7 sibilings. An African American lesbian at an early gay privileges fights before the White House in 1965. On the cover of the Daughters of Bilitis magazine The Ladder in June 1966, she was depicted in an iconic image. Despite the possibility of being discovered and terminated from her civil service position, she was the first African American to do so. In the years preceding Stonewall, she was aware of the risks associated with being openly gay. Actions as a Civil Rights activist fill Eckstein's early life. She was in Singing Hoosiers, wrote for the Indiana Daily Student, and was a member of Tomahawk, an honor society for academics. Additionally, she belonged to the Bloomington NAACP. She recieved a bachelor's degree in journalism and minored in government and Russian from Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana, in 1963. Eckstein, then 22 years old, moved to New York City in 1963. There, she started going to meetings of the New York Mattachine Society, one of the first gay rights groups. Both her work with DOB and BWOA show that Eckstein was a profoundly radical and progressive activist. Sadly, not much is known about her work after the BWOA, including the circumstances surrounding her death in 1992.
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Reference Page 1
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Mary Mcleod Bethune Photo: Sterling, K. (2008). Mary Mcleod Bethune: A life of resourcefulness. Retrieved from http://www.cpnas.org/aahp/biographies/bethune-mary-mcleod.html Audio: WESH 2 News [wesh]. (2022, July 14). Mary McCleod Bethune radio show interview. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PBnAxKSxXsg Video: Biography [Biography]. (2018, February 6). Mary McLeod Bethune, civil rights activist | biography. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gnI0RhtE9jY Article: Michals, D. (2015). Biography: Mary McLeod bethune. National Women's History Museum. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/mary-mcleod-bethune
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Nellie Griswold Francis Photo: Morrissette, M. (2021, March 1). Minnesota woman of history: Nellie Francis. Minnesota Women's Press. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.womenspress.com/minnesota-woman-of-history-nellie-francis/ Audio: Macy, D. (2021, February 3). Minnehistory. PBS. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.pbs.org/video/minnehistory-nellie-griswold-francis-38337/ Video: PBS, T. C. (2020, October 20). 100 years of Women's voting rights | citizen: Full-length documentary. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnKuDIp09UY&t=2005s Article: Francis, Nellie (1874–1969). (2017, May 3,). Mnopedia.org. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.mnopedia.org/person/francis-nellie-1874-1969
Anna J Cooper Photo: Anna Julia Cooper | DC Writers’ Homes. (2018b, November 25). DC Writers’ Homes. https://dcwritershomes.wdchumanities.org/anna-julia-cooper/ Audio: Sho Baraka. (2022, February 3). Do You Know. . .Anna Julia Cooper? YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYJs15xZUEA Video: ThinkTVPBS. (2021, March 22). Ohio Suffrage History: Dr. Anna Julia Cooper. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GO8M-Uri6Ao Article: Anna Julia Cooper | Columbia Celebrates Black History and Culture. (n.d.). https://blackhistory.news.columbia.edu/people/anna-julia-cooper
William Monroe Trotter Photo: Ruffin, H. G., II. (2019, August 8). William Monroe Trotter (1872-1934) •. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/trotter-william-monroe-1872-1934/ Audio: Marloin. (2021b, February 10). William Monroe Trotter: The Story. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9gypZPJr1A Video: Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello. (2021, November 15). The Getting Word Project and the Life of William Monroe Trotter. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjGGifU3P4c Article: Timeline of William Monroe Trotter’s Life | Trotter Multicultural Center. (n.d.). https://trotter.umich.edu/article/timeline-william-monroe-trotters-life
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Langston HughesP hoto: Somers, J. (2019, December 26). Biography of Langston Hughes, poet, key figure in Harlem Renaissance. ThoughtCo. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.thoughtco.com/biography-of-langston-hughes-4779849 Audio:ColorOfChange. (2015, August 5). Kids who die by Langston Hughes: In 1938 civil rights activist and poet Langston Hughes wrote his chilling poem "Kids who die" which illuminates the horrors of lynchings during the Jim...: By color of change. Facebook. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=10153460650661067 Video: Biography. (2014, February 4). Langston Hughes: Leading Voice of the Harlem Renaissance: Biography. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/inP76rkYUso Article: CoachPlayers, S. (2021, February 18). Langston Hughes, Best Known as a Leader of the Harlem Renaissance, was a Poet, Social Activist, Novelist, Playwright, and Columnist. Stagecoachplayers.com. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://stagecoachplayers.com/langstonhughes/
Bayard Rustin Photo: Zapata, C. (2021, October 22). Bayard Rustin. Biography.com. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.biography.com/activist/bayard-rustin Audio:Solidarity, U. (2011, January 3). Bayard Rustin Speaks. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Z66EZVtW_Q Video: TheNewYorkTimes. (2019, February 28). Why a gay, Black Civil Rights Hero opposed affirmative action | NYT opinion. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fybq5UQn8M8 Article:Gates, H. (2013, September 19). Bayard Rustin, the gay civil rights leader who organized the March on Washington. PBS. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/100-amazing-facts/who-designed-the-march-on-washington/
Dorothy Height Photo: Newspaper/Gado, A. (n.d.). Portrait of American Civil Rights activist Dorothy I Height. Getty Images. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.gettyimages.es/detail/fotograf%C3%ADa-de-noticias/portrait-of-american-civil-rights-activist-fotograf%C3%ADa-de-noticias/469363551?adppopup=true Audio: C-SPAN [C-SPAN]. (2017, February 21). Oral Histories: Explorations in Black Leadership - Dorothy Height. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6whYR_3Jkc Video: Strength, S. M. [UCGTbjXLU24tVQI9V_Mm6YNw]. (2021, June 21). Dorothy height the godmother of the civil rights movement | see my strength. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIw2wwiyUHA Article: Biography: (n.d.). Dr. Dorothy Height Biography. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/dorothy-height
James Baldwin Photo: Archive, H. (1964, September 3). American author James Baldwin during an interview at the Whitehall... Getty Images. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.gettyimages.de/detail/nachrichtenfoto/american-author-james-baldwin-during-an-interview-at-nachrichtenfoto/2664185?phrase=james%2Bbaldwin&adppopup=tru Audio: Williams, L. (2021, June 15). ABC tried to bury this James Baldwin interview. Four decades later, it's blisteringly relevant. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jXwWCyMJyc Video: Biography [Biography]. (2012, October 18). James Baldwin - writer | mini bio | BIO. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvJiyBE_wo0 Article: https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/james-baldwin-about-the-author/59/
Malcolm X Photo: Press, A. (2022, September 16). Malcolm X inducted into NE Hall of Fame. 91.5 KIOS-FM. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.kios.org/news/2022-09-16/malcolm-x-inducted-into-ne-hall-of-fame Audio: Sonian, S. (2018, February 16). Malcolm X's fiery speech addressing police brutality. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_uYWDyYNUg Video: TV, C. B. C. (2010, April 7). Malcolm X on Front Page Challenge, 1965: CBC Archives | CBC. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7IJ7npTYrU Article: Thompson, K. (2015, February 19). Malcolm X. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Malcolm-X
Percy Ellis Sutton Photo: Martin, D. (2009, December 27). Percy E. Sutton, political trailblazer, dies at 89. The New York Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/28/nyregion/28sutton.html Audio: Ben, G. (2017, May 25). G.B.T.V. cultureshare archives 1999: Percy Sutton "Interview" (HD). YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/73nfaPj7x-Q Video:visionaryproject. (2009, December 27). Percy Sutton: My definition of leadership. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/Sq6tt5IZYEk Article: Martin, D. (2009, December 27). Percy E. Sutton, political trailblazer, dies at 89. The New York Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/28/nyregion/28sutton.html
Mary Louise Smith Photo: Tffcm. (2022, February 8). Black history month: Mary Louise Smith, remembering the women who came before Rosa Parks. The Forgiveness Foundation. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://theforgivenessfoundation.org/2021/08/07/black-history-month-mary-louise-smith-remembering-the-women-who-came-before-rosa-parks/ Audio: Official City of Stonecrest Georgia [UCp3rYzHzhZvd9Y7Ruf1O6kg]. (2021, February 2). Moments in Black History. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIHdSOntXag Video: Unauthorized History [UnauthorizedHistory]. (2020, April 7). Mary Louise smith - the 18 year old who refused to give up her seat 40 days before Rosa parks. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jIFl1BLSjd0 Article: TFFCM. (2021, August 7). Black History Month: Mary Louise smith, Remembering the women who came before Rosa Parks. The Forgiveness Foundation; The Forgiveness Foundation Christian Ministries, Inc. https://theforgivenessfoundation.org/2021/08/07/black-history-month-mary-louise-smith-remembering-the-women-who-came-before-rosa-parks/
Hank Aaron Photo: Petiprin, A. (2021, January 29). Hank Aaron: Gentleman, activist, Catholic. Word on Fire. https://www.wordonfire.org/articles/fellows/hank-aaron-gentleman-activist-catholic/ Audio: Keith [MrSportshistorian]. (2016, January 7). Hank Aaron - sports century. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nhdNvNg60M Video: Biography [Biography]. (2010, January 26). Hank Aaron - baseball player & civil rights activist | mini bio | BIO. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m66lmbROA58 Article: State Sen. Jeff Smith. (2021, February 8, ). COLUMN: Honoring Hank Aaron’s legacy during black history month. Volumeone.org. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://volumeone.org/articles/2021/02/08/271991-column-honoring-hank-aarons-legacy-during
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John Lewis Photo: Lafayette, B. (2020, July 18). The first time John Lewis and I integrated the buses. The New York Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/18/opinion/john-lewis-dead.html Audio: School, D. (2016, February 7). Rep John Lewis' speech at March on Washington. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/tFs1eTsokJg Video:News, C. (2020, July 18). The Life of US Civil Rights Hero John Lewis. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1ZP-hDQ8m0 Article: Deal, D. (2020, July 30). John Lewis. National Parks Service. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/john-lewis.html
Julian Bond Photo: News, & Information. (2008, January 31). Julian Bond to speak at UW on Feb. 6. UW News. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.washington.edu/news/2008/01/31/julian-bond-to-speak-at-uw-on-feb-6/ Audio: Memory, F. (2010, March 25). Vibrations: Julian Bond (1982). YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8l8zf7JS69k Video: StreetY, 92nd. (2019, January 20). Civil rights leader Julian Bond on dr. Martin Luther King, jr. and the March on Washington. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BPskdsJRt9k Article: NAACP. (2021, May 11). Julian Bond. NAACP. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://naacp.org/find-resources/history-explained/civil-rights-leaders/julian-bond
Stokely Carmichael Photo: Bates, K. G. (2014, March 10). Stokely Carmichael, a philosopher behind the Black Power Movement. NPR. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/03/10/287320160/stokely-carmichael-a-philosopher-behind-the-black-power-movement Audio: Marxist, A. (2017, May 29). Kwame Ture on Mobilization & Organization. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZXePR6tBPk Video: Organization, A. (2021, June 6). Biography: Stokely Carmichael. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/wqlbC__opbI Article:Editors, H. (2009, December 18). Stokely Carmichael. History.com. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/stokely-carmichael
Ernestine Eckstein Photo: Lipsky, D. B. (2022, February 10). Pat, Cleo, and Ernestine: Pioneering black members of the daughters of bilitis. San Francisco Bay Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://sfbaytimes.com/pat-cleo-and-ernestine-pioneering-black-members-of-the-daughters-of-bilitis/ Audio: facts, black. (2022, October 20). BlackFacts.com presents - LGBTQ + pioneers: Ernestine Eckstein. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjMebWxuFAA Video: facts, black. (2021, July 27). Blackfacts minute: Women in black history - Ernestine Eckstein. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnU1g8iEtiM Article: Pyper, N. (2020). Ernestine Eckstein. LIBRARYSTACK. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.librarystack.org/ernestine-eckstein/
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African American Activists
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African American Activists
African American Activists
1863- 1883- 1884-1892-1895-1901- 1904-1914-1926- 1930-1933-1934-1937-1946-1952
Charlotte L. Brown
W.E.B. DuBois
William Monroe Trotter
Ida B. Wells
LangstonHughes
DorothyHeight
NellieGriswold Francis
Booker T. Washington
JamesBaldwiniso
Malcolm X
Percy EllisSutton
HankAaron
Mary McleodBethune
Bayard Rustin
Anna J. Cooper
Anna J. Cooper is best known for being a distinguished black scholar and knowing that black women's education was needed for world development.
Ida B. Wells is famed for her detailed mapping of lynchings around the US and her fight for women's suffrage.
Malcolm X: He was a man with many responsibilities; a minister, heavily involved in demanding civil rights, and a Black nationalist, Malcolm X fought tirelessly for the rights of black people because of past racist abuse he and his family had suffered.
W.E.B. DuBois is notorious for being the first African American to go to and receive a Ph.D. from Havard and being a founding member of the NAACP.
Charlotte L. Brown is best known for being the first black woman to legally challenge and win a case against segregation laws.
Percy Ellis Sutton: Not only was he one of America's best-known lawyers, but he was also the highest-ranking African-American elected official in New York City in 1966
James Baldwin: As a Civil Rights activist and author, James Baldwin joined the Congress of Racial Equality, then traveled acros s the American South, lecturing many on his view of racial inequality.
Bayard Rustin: Fighting for many things, such as worker's rights and racial equality, one of the things Rustin was most known for was his planning of the 1963 March on Washington. He also advocated for gay rights.
Hank Aaron: Being an African American star on a white team, Hank Aaron was also very prominent in the Civil Rights Movement as a baseball player.
William Monroe Trotter was a civil rights activist known for being one of the many co-founders of the NAACP.
Mary Mcleod Bethune was a philanthropist, educator, womanist, and activist who helped pave the way for other Black female activists.
Booker T. Washington is best known for being an influential advocate for black people and passing expectations even though he was born into slavery.
Langston Hughes was a poet, social activist, playwright, and novelist recognized as one of the leaders of the Harlem Renaissance.iso
Dorothy Height was a women's and civil rights activist who mainly fought against women's suffrage, unemployment, and illiteracy.
Nellie Griswold Francis was a civic leader, suffragist, and activist who founded Everywoman Suffrage Club.
african american activists
1955 1958 1960 1961 1963
Ernestine Eckstein
Julian Bond
Mary Louise Smith
John Lewis
Stokely Carmichael
Julian Bond was an activist, politician, professor, and much more. He is also credited for developing the SNCC and was a chairman of the NAACP for 11 years.
Known later in his life as Kwame Ture, he helped organize the Freedom rides of 1961 and later became associated with the Black Panther Party, coining the infamous term "Black Power!".
Ernestine Eckstein was an openly lesbian activist who fought for homosexual rights and was on the committee for an organization centered around lesbian equality.
Mary Smith was an early civil rights activist: she was one of many people that refused to get up from their seats prior to the same incident involving Rosa Parks.
John Lewis was a prominent black political figure who served for over 33 years as a United States House of Representatives member. He also co-founded the Student Nonviolence Coordinating Committee.
Charlotte L. Brown
1863-1867
Charlotte L. Brown was a black civil rights activist born in Maryland in 1839. She a pioneer in challenging racial segregation in the United States after filing a winning lawsuit against a streetcar company in the 1860s after being forcibly removed from a segregated streetcar. Her lawsuit was an event that contributed to bringing black activists in both southern and northern cities to protest segregation on public transportation in the 19th and 20th centuries.
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1883-1961
W.E.B. DuBois
1883-1961
William Edward Burghardt, more famously known as W.E.B Du Bois, was a teacher, writer, sociologist, and activist born in 1868. His primary focus was to help provide African Americans with the things they needed to receive an education so they could become successful without being heavily dependent on other people. In 1895, he received a Ph.D. from Harvard University, a first for black people. After receiving his Ph.D., he began working as a professor at Clark Atlanta University. While working there, he began becoming more well-known when he openly disagreed with fellow activist Booker T. Washington about their opinions on education for African Americans. Du Bois believed in African Americans engaging in more technical education, while Washington felt they should get more hands-on jobs. He was also noted as being one of the co-founders of the NAACP in 1909, which is a civil rights organization that works to better the lives of African Americans.
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Anna J. Cooper
1892
Anna J Cooper was an activist, teacher, and writer who stood for African American and women's rights. She was born on August 10th, 1858, into slavery in Raleigh, North Carolina. She was the daughter of a slave and an owner. She began her education at nine years old at Saint Augustine's Normal School and Collegiate Institute. She went on to gain a masters in mathematics at Oberlin College in Ohio. Once a graduate, she began her professional career as a teacher, teaching at Washington Colored High School. While teaching, Anna wrote a book that's focus was obtaining equality in education for Black women, but it ended up benefiting the entire Black race. The success of her book was very beneficial as it allowed her to lecture people all over the nation and inform them how vital equality was for society. She even went as far as becoming a high school principal in 1902, even though the Washington school board shot down her beneficial moves for black students. Anna then went on to co-found organizations such as the Colored Women's League in 1892 and created colored "branches" of organizations so that more people of color could join. She also went back to school in 1911 at Columbia University and in 1924 at the University of Paris, where she obtained a doctorate in philosophy. Anna J Cooper's 105 years of life were very well worthed living as she persisted in fighting for the betterment of her people.
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Booker T. Washington
1895-1915
Booker T. Washington was born in April of 1856, in Virginia. Although born into slavery, he was emancipated along with his family after the Civil War in 1865. He later attended the Hampton Institute and was noted as being a brilliant student, and was requested back in 1879 by the school's founder to become a teacher. Booker was a part of many African American businesses and organizations and was an original founder of the National Negro Business League. In 1881, he founded Tuskegee University, an HBCU in Alabama, where he served as president for over 30 years. He wrote five books in his lifetime, including Up From Slavery, arguably his most famous book, in which he documented his life from being a slave to his life post-Civil War. He gained a lot of recognition in 1895 after giving a controversial speech known as the "Atlanta Compromise," in which he described his acceptance of segregation as a "separated but equal" mindset. He believed that African Americans should practically disregard the negative connotation of segregation and earn their respect, rights, and equality through hard work and vocational training. This caused tension between him and activist W.E.B. DuBois, who completely opposed this idea, believing in integration and the importance of obtaining an education. Washington went on to be a "race advisor" for President Roosevelt and Taft, but his popularity went down around 1913 when newly elected President Wilson decided to move America forward as a country and worked towards integration and equality for black people. Booker was the President of Tuskegee University until his death, caused by heart failure, in 1915. Though some of his beliefs weren't favorable to some, he still paved the way for generations of African Americans.
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William Monroe Trotter
1900-1910
William Monroe Trotter was born in April of 1872, in Ohio, to two parents who were largely involved in the race movement. He went to college at Harvard University, where he graduated with honors for his studies in international banking and financing. He was a significant civil rights activist, infamously known for his first major political challenge of the political dominance of Booker T. Washington, the man who founded the Tuskegee Institute. Trotter was an African-American journalist and vocal advocate for racial injustice. He was the founder of the Boston Guardian, the National Negro Suffrage League, the Niagara Movement, and the Negero-American Political League. He also helped form what we know today as the NAACP. William passed away in Boston at age 62, leaving a legacy of advocacy and determination.
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Ida B. Wells
1884-1916
Ida B. Wells was an African American activist who was a leader at the beginning of the civil rights movement. She is well known for her lead in an anti-lynching crusade in Washington, DC, in the 1890s, and she also was a co-founder of the NAACP. Ida's gift was her writing; she used her skills as a journalist to inform the nation of the mistreatment of African Americans in the south. She was born in 1862 in Holly Springs, Mississippi, to two parents who were very active in politics. They were the ones who taught her the importance of having a good education. Due to yellow fever, Ida lost both her parents and brother but gained a new responsibility. At only 16 years old, she was forced to take on the role of the head of her family. She took on jobs such as teaching while still being a student on her own. She ended up relocating to Memphis, Tennessee, where she still taught but not for long due to laws in Memphis. At this point in her life, she chose Journalism as her profession. In 1889, she purchased a share in the Memphis Free Speech and Headlight newspaper. This move helped her become the first female editor and co-owner of this Black newspaper. She wrote under the alias name "Lola." Throughout the 1880-90s, Ida B. Wells began to record the mass amount of lynching cases and write about them for the rest of the world to be informed. These writings led to her march in 1913 in Washington D.C. for the suffrage of Blacks in America. Ida will forever be remembered for her dedication to writing and her beneficial braveness for the fair treatment of African Americans.
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Mary Mcleod Bethune
1904-1955
Mary Bethune was born July 10, 1875, to former slaves post-Civil War and was 1 out of 16 children. She attended Moody Bible Institute as well as Barber-Scotia College and would balance attending school while working in the cotton fields. Throughout her life, she was an educator, political activist, and organizer. Mary went on to found Bethune-Cookman University in 1904, one of the first schools for African American girls, and was the school's president for over 20 years. In 1940, Bethune became the Vice President of the NAACP. Aside from her civil rights achievements, she also was a successful businesswoman, co-owning a resort and an insurance company. Mary Bethune died in 1955 in her Florida home due to a heart attack. She had dedicated her life to ensuring African- Americans has the right to education, free from discrimination.
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Nellie Griswold Francis
1914-1921
Nellie Francis was an African-American suffragist, civil rights activist, and civic leader. She was born November 7, 1874, in Nashville, Tennessee. In her early stages of life, she enjoyed singing and acting and later got a drama scholarship for college. Later into her activism years, Francis was active in the NAACP and Urban League and founded the Everywoman's Suffrage Club. This club/organization helped win women's rights to vote. An important bill Nellie is known for is the Minnesota Anti-Lynching bill passed in 1921. She was friends with other known civic leaders during this time, including Booker T. Washington, Ida B. Wells, and more. Her impact on the civil rights movement is one that is greatly appreciated. Francis and her husband, while living in America, were targeted by the Ku Klux Klan. Later in her life, she and her husband moved to Liberia, Africa. Francis died in 1969.
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Langston Hughes
1926-1964
Langston Hughes was born in February of 1902, in Missouri. He was an inspirational figure during the Harlem Renaissance, credited for being an influential African American writer. Langston's subjects of his writings were based on the African American experience ranging from poetry, plays, novels, and newspaper columns. He began his writing career at a young age in New York, where he attended Columbia University, and wrote his famous article "The Negro was in Vogue" at the age of 19. Though he eventually dropped out of the school, he gained notice from New York publishers, which led to him becoming well-known in the creative community in Harlem. He later graduated from Lincoln University in 1929, going on to compose plays and short stories. Lincoln wrote The Chicago Defender in a column leading newspaper during the rise of the Civil Rights movement. Langston was part of an all-black group that wanted to produce a film about African Americans in the United States; however, the film was never made. Langston was given the opportunity to travel all around the world; China, Japan, Korea, the Soviet Union, and parts of the Caribbean. Langston Hughes died in May of 1967 in New York City due to cancer.
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Dorothy Height
1930-1957
Dorothy Height was a racial and women's activist and educator from 1957 to 1998. She was born on March 24, 1912, in Richmond, Virginia. A few years later, her family moved to Rankin, Pennsylvania, where she thrived academically. Dorothy was eventually awarded a college scholarship. She was accepted into Barnard College but was denied admission because the school did not accept African Americans. Height went on to earn a bachelor's degree in education and a master's degree in psychology from New York University . Dorothy began her career as a social worker in Harlem, New York. She subsequently became a member of the Harlem Young Women's Christian Association's staff (YWCA). Height quickly rose to the position of leader in the local organization. She developed a variety of programs and pressed the organization to integrate YWCA facilities across the country. Height was the president of the National Council of Negro Women, which was founded by Dr. Mary McLeod Bethune. During the Civil Rights era, as President of the NCNW, she was instrumental in advancing racial justice for African Americans. In 1963, she helped organize the March on Washington. Worked with several civil rights leaders to persuade presidents to desegregate schools and put black women in positions of power.
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Percy Ellis Sutton
1933-2009
Percy Ellis Sutton was born in November of 1920, in San Antonio. Percy was the youngest child of 15 children. Percy takes after his father by being an activist in the civil rights movement, and he was also a lawyer. As a child, his family was dedicated to civil rights. At the age of 13, he was attacked by the police for passing out leaflets for the NAACP in an all-white neighborhood. Later, he then joined the Boy Scouts of America, which was a key factor in shaping his life. He was ranked Eagle Scout in 1936 and awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award. Percy attended Prairie View A&M University but got his LL.B. in 1950 from Columbia Law School and Brooklyn Law School. Percy became one of the best lawyers throughout the 1950s and 1960s; he even represented Malcolm X in 1965. He then moved to the Harlem community, where he was the leader of Harlem Clubhouse after spending time in jail with other activists. While living in New York, he was involved in the New York Assembly, and in 1966 he was elected to be Borough President of Manhattan, which he stopped serving in 1977. In 1987, the NAACP awarded Percy Sutton the Spingarn Medal for outstanding achievement by an African American. Percy Sutton died in New York in late 2009 at the age of 89. Although he has passed, he will always be known as the highest-ranking African American elected.
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Hank Aaron
1934-1976
Hank Aaron was a legendary American baseball player; he became highly decorated, both through sports and societal achievements. Born in 1934 in Mobile, Alabama, Hank experienced many instances of racism and prejudice. The Ku Klux Klan would frequent his childhood neighborhood, interrupting his baseball practices and forcing him to hide away in his house until they had left the area. He didn't let that hinder his efforts to play professionally, and after hearing a speech from Jackie Robinson, Aaron decided to make that his goal. He started small, playing in semi-pro and minor leagues, but became recognized by larger baseball organizations quickly due to his hard work. His sports career led him to many places, including Wisconsin, where he was highly respected and, unfamiliar to him, treated equally. Contrastly, he was soon again re-exposed to the harsh Jim Crow laws of the South, and encountered white teammates who would refuse to dress or even play with him. While playing for the Jacksonville Tars following the assassination of MLK, he requested a moment of silence, but his plea was unapologetically disregarded. He was dehumanized during games, and once he was nearing the home run record set by Babe Ruth, he received death threats for himself and his family. Despite all of this, Aaron went on to be acknowledged for various achievements, including being inducted Hall of Fame, the Thurgood Marshall Lifetime Achievement Award, presented by the NAACP, and the Medal of Freedom, awarded by President Bush in 2002 for his humanitarian efforts. Hank passed away in 2021, but his legacy lives on, partially through the Hank Aaron Chasing the Dream Fund, which provides financial support for young aspiring children in Milwaukee.
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Bayard Rustin
1937-1984
Bayard Rustin was born in Pennsylvania on March 17, 1912, and was raised by his grandparents, who were associated with the NAACP, and often visited with influential black leaders like Mary Bethune and W.E.B. DuBois. He truly began his activist career after joining the YCL (Youth Communist League) while in college in New York in the 1930s. In 1941, after leaving the organization, he was appointed as a lead organizer of the March on Washington and attributed to many other associations, such as the International Rescue Committee, the Socialist Party of America, and the Fellowship of Reconciliation. He believed in nonviolence, racial equality in jobs, and gay rights. Bayard was arrested in 1953 for suspicion of homosexuality, but following his release, he continued to live his life openly as a gay man. He didn't speak about it much, though, to not detract from the broader issue. He was also credited for his involvement in arranging the Journey of Reconciliation, a precursor to the Freedom Rides of the 1960s. After being wrongfully jailed due to that instance, Rustin wrote to The New York Post, highlighting the poor conditions and "chain gangs" of the prison, demanding change and reform of the system. Shortly after, he became acquainted with Martin Luther King and became an advisor to him in 1956 during the Montgomery bus boycott. After years of essential contributions to the Civil Rights Movement, Bayard went on to adopt his lover, a normalized way of "marrying" as a gay person. He continued to fight for justice and equality until 1997, when he passed due to untimely health complications at 75.
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James Baldwin
1946-1985
James Baldwin was a renowned author and activist who highlighted racial and sexual oppression in America. Born in 1924 in Harlem, New York, James started preaching with his father when he was a teen, and he largely credited his time in the church for giving him a purpose to write. He relocated overseas in 1948 and published his first book while living in France. This was the first of many novels detailing his experience of being brought up as a black man in Harlem, the oppression African Americans faced, and his struggles with sexuality. He returned to the U.S. in 1957, amidst the Civil Rights Movement, and continued to tell the tale of a black man in a racially divided country, writing bestseller Another Country in 1962, along with many other works. He became greatly involved in the fight for equality and was a close friend to other activists at the time, including MLK and Malcolm X. He's noted to have attended the Selma to Montgomery March, the March on Washington, and a literary conference called "The Negro Writers Vision of America." Following their untimely and egregious deaths, Baldwin again left the United States and moved back to France, where he continued writing short stories and essays before passing away from cancer at age 63. Baldwin's numerous stories and other works earned him many awards, and he was, and still is, credited for being a large influence and advocate for equality in the mid-twentieth century.
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Malcolm X
1952-1965
Malcolm X was a political activist best known for his role as a leader in the American civil rights movement. Malcolm Stuart Little was born May 19, 1925, in Omaha, Nebraska, and was the fourth of eight children. Malcolm and his family were subjected to racist abuse by the KKK when he was younger, which caused his family to relocate. Unfortunately, when Malcolm X was six years old, his father was murdered in what many believe was a premeditated racist attack. His childhood experiences influenced his decision to join the civil rights movement. During the 1950s and early 1960s, Malcolm X emerged as the Nation of Islam's primary spokesman. He arranged temples, began a newspaper, and was the leader of Temple No. 7 in Harlem, New York City. Elijah Muhammad made him the NOI's national representative of Islam, the second most influential position. Malcolm X passionately spoke at rallies, large gatherings, and events. Malcolm X's acceptance of black separatism molded the controversy over how to accomplish freedom and equality in a country that had long denied a segment of its citizens complete protection of their rights. He also laid the groundwork for the late-sixties Black Power movement.
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Mary Louise Smith
1955
Mary Louise Smith was born in 1937 in Alabama. She graduated from St. Jude Educational Institute as a child. At the age of 18, Mary was demanded to submit her bus seat to a white person on October 21, 1955. She declined. Mary was detained, charged with disobeying segregation orders, and fined nine dollars. Her story doesn't end here. Then, in December of the same year, Rosa Parks refused the same order on a bus in Montgomery, Alabama. She, her sister, and their children were all participants in a class-action lawsuit for the Montgomery YMCA's desegregation. Mary also participated in the 1963 March on Washington and the 1965 march from Selma to Montgomery for equal voting rights, led by Martin Luther King, Jr. In 2005, Mary attended Rosa's funeral saying, "I had to pay tribute to her. She was our role model."
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John Lewis
1958-2020
John Robert Lewis was born near Troy, Alabama, on February 21, 1940. Political leader and leader of civil rights in the United States best known for chairing the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) and leading the 1965 march in Selma, Alabama, that was stopped on the Edmund Pettus Bridge due to violent government officials, referred to as "Bloody Sunday." He went to schools with racial segregation, and his parents told him not to speak out against the injustices of the Jim Crow South. However, he expressed his desire to desegregate Troy State College when he was a teenager, inspired by the brave defiance of other black activists. In addition to participating in sit-ins at segregated public spaces, Lewis studied nonviolent protest. He was elected to succeed Chuck McDew as chairman of SNCC in 1963, and he held that position until 1966. More than 50 marchers were hospitalized due to the brutal assault, including Lewis, whose skull was fractured. Still, he spoke with television reporters before going to the hospital. In 1975, Lewis was presented with the Martin Luther King, Jr. Nonviolent Peace Prize. Lewis lost his battle with pancreatic cancer in July 2020. On the day of Lewis's funeral, The New York Times published a valedictory essay at his request. In it, Lewis praised the Black Lives Matter movement and gave future activists his marching orders.
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Julian Bond
1960-2015
Horace Julian Bond was born in Nashville, Tennessee, on January 14, 1940.was best known for fighting for his rightful seat in the Georgia House of Representatives and for being a Black civil rights leader in the United States. Bond went to Morehouse College in Atlanta, Georgia, where he led a sit-in to make Atlanta lunch counters more diverse. He was a founding member of the SNCC in 1960 and later held the organization's communications director position. He was elected to the Georgia state legislature in 1965, but the body denied him a seat due to his endorsement of a statement by the SNCC opposing U.S. participation in the Vietnam War. The exclusion was deemed unconstitutional by the US Supreme Court in December 1966, and Bond was sworn in on January 9, 1967. From 1967 to 1975, Bond represented Georgia in the House of Representatives, and from 1975 to 1987, he represented Georgia in the Senate. Bond, 75, passed away on August 15 in a Fort Walton Beach, Florida, hospital.
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Stokely Carmichael
1961-1968
Kwame Ture, born in 1941 as Stokely Carmichael, grew up in New York City and attended Howard University in 1961. During his time there, he joined the SNCC and organized and participated in the Freedom Rides of 1961. Ture helped register black voters in the south and helped campaign for black political leaders. Although early on, he was in an alliance with Martin Luther King Jr. and their shared views on nonviolence, in 1967, he stepped down from his position on the SNCC committee. Following this, he realigned himself with the Black Panther Party after being discouraged by the rate of progress African Americans were experiencing toward equality. After being investigated by the FBI and CIA, he eventually left the United States, moved to Guinea, and changed his name to Kwame Ture. He went on to publish his only book, a collection of essays and speeches but was arrested nine years following for accusations of him trying to overthrow the government. Kwame Ture passed away in 1986 after a long battle with cancer at his home in Guinea.
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Ernestine Eckstein
1963-1966
Ernestine Delois Eppenger was born on April 23, 1941, in South Bend, Indiana. She was born to Darnell and Cecelia Eppenger, and had 7 sibilings. An African American lesbian at an early gay privileges fights before the White House in 1965. On the cover of the Daughters of Bilitis magazine The Ladder in June 1966, she was depicted in an iconic image. Despite the possibility of being discovered and terminated from her civil service position, she was the first African American to do so. In the years preceding Stonewall, she was aware of the risks associated with being openly gay. Actions as a Civil Rights activist fill Eckstein's early life. She was in Singing Hoosiers, wrote for the Indiana Daily Student, and was a member of Tomahawk, an honor society for academics. Additionally, she belonged to the Bloomington NAACP. She recieved a bachelor's degree in journalism and minored in government and Russian from Indiana University in Bloomington, Indiana, in 1963. Eckstein, then 22 years old, moved to New York City in 1963. There, she started going to meetings of the New York Mattachine Society, one of the first gay rights groups. Both her work with DOB and BWOA show that Eckstein was a profoundly radical and progressive activist. Sadly, not much is known about her work after the BWOA, including the circumstances surrounding her death in 1992.
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Reference Page 1
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Nellie Griswold Francis Photo: Morrissette, M. (2021, March 1). Minnesota woman of history: Nellie Francis. Minnesota Women's Press. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.womenspress.com/minnesota-woman-of-history-nellie-francis/ Audio: Macy, D. (2021, February 3). Minnehistory. PBS. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.pbs.org/video/minnehistory-nellie-griswold-francis-38337/ Video: PBS, T. C. (2020, October 20). 100 years of Women's voting rights | citizen: Full-length documentary. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hnKuDIp09UY&t=2005s Article: Francis, Nellie (1874–1969). (2017, May 3,). Mnopedia.org. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.mnopedia.org/person/francis-nellie-1874-1969
Anna J Cooper Photo: Anna Julia Cooper | DC Writers’ Homes. (2018b, November 25). DC Writers’ Homes. https://dcwritershomes.wdchumanities.org/anna-julia-cooper/ Audio: Sho Baraka. (2022, February 3). Do You Know. . .Anna Julia Cooper? YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MYJs15xZUEA Video: ThinkTVPBS. (2021, March 22). Ohio Suffrage History: Dr. Anna Julia Cooper. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GO8M-Uri6Ao Article: Anna Julia Cooper | Columbia Celebrates Black History and Culture. (n.d.). https://blackhistory.news.columbia.edu/people/anna-julia-cooper
William Monroe Trotter Photo: Ruffin, H. G., II. (2019, August 8). William Monroe Trotter (1872-1934) •. https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/trotter-william-monroe-1872-1934/ Audio: Marloin. (2021b, February 10). William Monroe Trotter: The Story. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m9gypZPJr1A Video: Thomas Jefferson’s Monticello. (2021, November 15). The Getting Word Project and the Life of William Monroe Trotter. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DjGGifU3P4c Article: Timeline of William Monroe Trotter’s Life | Trotter Multicultural Center. (n.d.). https://trotter.umich.edu/article/timeline-william-monroe-trotters-life
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Bayard Rustin Photo: Zapata, C. (2021, October 22). Bayard Rustin. Biography.com. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.biography.com/activist/bayard-rustin Audio:Solidarity, U. (2011, January 3). Bayard Rustin Speaks. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_Z66EZVtW_Q Video: TheNewYorkTimes. (2019, February 28). Why a gay, Black Civil Rights Hero opposed affirmative action | NYT opinion. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fybq5UQn8M8 Article:Gates, H. (2013, September 19). Bayard Rustin, the gay civil rights leader who organized the March on Washington. PBS. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.pbs.org/wnet/african-americans-many-rivers-to-cross/history/100-amazing-facts/who-designed-the-march-on-washington/
Dorothy Height Photo: Newspaper/Gado, A. (n.d.). Portrait of American Civil Rights activist Dorothy I Height. Getty Images. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.gettyimages.es/detail/fotograf%C3%ADa-de-noticias/portrait-of-american-civil-rights-activist-fotograf%C3%ADa-de-noticias/469363551?adppopup=true Audio: C-SPAN [C-SPAN]. (2017, February 21). Oral Histories: Explorations in Black Leadership - Dorothy Height. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x6whYR_3Jkc Video: Strength, S. M. [UCGTbjXLU24tVQI9V_Mm6YNw]. (2021, June 21). Dorothy height the godmother of the civil rights movement | see my strength. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MIw2wwiyUHA Article: Biography: (n.d.). Dr. Dorothy Height Biography. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.womenshistory.org/education-resources/biographies/dorothy-height
James Baldwin Photo: Archive, H. (1964, September 3). American author James Baldwin during an interview at the Whitehall... Getty Images. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.gettyimages.de/detail/nachrichtenfoto/american-author-james-baldwin-during-an-interview-at-nachrichtenfoto/2664185?phrase=james%2Bbaldwin&adppopup=tru Audio: Williams, L. (2021, June 15). ABC tried to bury this James Baldwin interview. Four decades later, it's blisteringly relevant. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9jXwWCyMJyc Video: Biography [Biography]. (2012, October 18). James Baldwin - writer | mini bio | BIO. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NvJiyBE_wo0 Article: https://www.pbs.org/wnet/americanmasters/james-baldwin-about-the-author/59/
Malcolm X Photo: Press, A. (2022, September 16). Malcolm X inducted into NE Hall of Fame. 91.5 KIOS-FM. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.kios.org/news/2022-09-16/malcolm-x-inducted-into-ne-hall-of-fame Audio: Sonian, S. (2018, February 16). Malcolm X's fiery speech addressing police brutality. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_uYWDyYNUg Video: TV, C. B. C. (2010, April 7). Malcolm X on Front Page Challenge, 1965: CBC Archives | CBC. YouTube. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C7IJ7npTYrU Article: Thompson, K. (2015, February 19). Malcolm X. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved November 9, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/biography/Malcolm-X
Percy Ellis Sutton Photo: Martin, D. (2009, December 27). Percy E. Sutton, political trailblazer, dies at 89. The New York Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/28/nyregion/28sutton.html Audio: Ben, G. (2017, May 25). G.B.T.V. cultureshare archives 1999: Percy Sutton "Interview" (HD). YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/73nfaPj7x-Q Video:visionaryproject. (2009, December 27). Percy Sutton: My definition of leadership. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/Sq6tt5IZYEk Article: Martin, D. (2009, December 27). Percy E. Sutton, political trailblazer, dies at 89. The New York Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/28/nyregion/28sutton.html
Mary Louise Smith Photo: Tffcm. (2022, February 8). Black history month: Mary Louise Smith, remembering the women who came before Rosa Parks. The Forgiveness Foundation. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://theforgivenessfoundation.org/2021/08/07/black-history-month-mary-louise-smith-remembering-the-women-who-came-before-rosa-parks/ Audio: Official City of Stonecrest Georgia [UCp3rYzHzhZvd9Y7Ruf1O6kg]. (2021, February 2). Moments in Black History. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIHdSOntXag Video: Unauthorized History [UnauthorizedHistory]. (2020, April 7). Mary Louise smith - the 18 year old who refused to give up her seat 40 days before Rosa parks. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jIFl1BLSjd0 Article: TFFCM. (2021, August 7). Black History Month: Mary Louise smith, Remembering the women who came before Rosa Parks. The Forgiveness Foundation; The Forgiveness Foundation Christian Ministries, Inc. https://theforgivenessfoundation.org/2021/08/07/black-history-month-mary-louise-smith-remembering-the-women-who-came-before-rosa-parks/
Hank Aaron Photo: Petiprin, A. (2021, January 29). Hank Aaron: Gentleman, activist, Catholic. Word on Fire. https://www.wordonfire.org/articles/fellows/hank-aaron-gentleman-activist-catholic/ Audio: Keith [MrSportshistorian]. (2016, January 7). Hank Aaron - sports century. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7nhdNvNg60M Video: Biography [Biography]. (2010, January 26). Hank Aaron - baseball player & civil rights activist | mini bio | BIO. Youtube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m66lmbROA58 Article: State Sen. Jeff Smith. (2021, February 8, ). COLUMN: Honoring Hank Aaron’s legacy during black history month. Volumeone.org. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://volumeone.org/articles/2021/02/08/271991-column-honoring-hank-aarons-legacy-during
Reference Page 3
John Lewis Photo: Lafayette, B. (2020, July 18). The first time John Lewis and I integrated the buses. The New York Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/07/18/opinion/john-lewis-dead.html Audio: School, D. (2016, February 7). Rep John Lewis' speech at March on Washington. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/tFs1eTsokJg Video:News, C. (2020, July 18). The Life of US Civil Rights Hero John Lewis. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W1ZP-hDQ8m0 Article: Deal, D. (2020, July 30). John Lewis. National Parks Service. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.nps.gov/subjects/civilrights/john-lewis.html
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Stokely Carmichael Photo: Bates, K. G. (2014, March 10). Stokely Carmichael, a philosopher behind the Black Power Movement. NPR. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2014/03/10/287320160/stokely-carmichael-a-philosopher-behind-the-black-power-movement Audio: Marxist, A. (2017, May 29). Kwame Ture on Mobilization & Organization. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mZXePR6tBPk Video: Organization, A. (2021, June 6). Biography: Stokely Carmichael. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://youtu.be/wqlbC__opbI Article:Editors, H. (2009, December 18). Stokely Carmichael. History.com. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.history.com/topics/black-history/stokely-carmichael
Ernestine Eckstein Photo: Lipsky, D. B. (2022, February 10). Pat, Cleo, and Ernestine: Pioneering black members of the daughters of bilitis. San Francisco Bay Times. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://sfbaytimes.com/pat-cleo-and-ernestine-pioneering-black-members-of-the-daughters-of-bilitis/ Audio: facts, black. (2022, October 20). BlackFacts.com presents - LGBTQ + pioneers: Ernestine Eckstein. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjMebWxuFAA Video: facts, black. (2021, July 27). Blackfacts minute: Women in black history - Ernestine Eckstein. YouTube. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZnU1g8iEtiM Article: Pyper, N. (2020). Ernestine Eckstein. LIBRARYSTACK. Retrieved November 10, 2022, from https://www.librarystack.org/ernestine-eckstein/
Team List
Jaryn Jefferson- Psychology -Group Communication, Photo Archeologist, Publisist, Data Checker, Journalist Makayla Collins- Biology - Genially Manager, Video Archeologist, Audio Archeologist, Journalist Jennifer Williams- Nursing -Genially Manager, Article Archeologist, Journalist