word formation

Word structure and formation

What is grammar?

Grammar is concerned with how sentences and utterances are formed. In a typical English sentence, we can see two basic principles of grammar: the arrangement of items (synatx) and the structure of items (morphology)- Two basic principles of grammar Syntax: structure of a sentence Morphology : internal structure of a word

Word-formation is the branch of lexicology that studies the derivative structure of existing words and the patterns with which a language builds new words. It is a certain principle of classification of lexicon and one of the main ways of enriching the vocabulary.

Word-formation is studied

• Synchronically

Scholars investigate the existing system of the types of word-formation

• Diachronically

Scholars investigate the history of word-formation

1. Morpheme

Words are composed of morphemes which are The smallest unit of meaning of language that carries information about meaning or function is the morpheme. (Greek morphe "form" + -eme "the smallest distinctive unit") Some words, have only one morpheme( cannot be broken down into smaller units); others, have many (can be broken down into smaller units). Dog Unbreakable

Examples of morphemes

BUILD+ER build (with the meaning of "construct") -er (which indicates that the entire word functions as a noun with the meaning "one who builds"). HOUSE+S house (with the meaning of "dwelling") -s (with the meaning "more than one")

Kinds of morphemes

Affixes (prefixes and suffixes) UNtidy / ChristianISM Inflectional morpheme (gramatical relation) penS understOOd Derivational morpheme (lexical relationships) homeLESS doABLE Allomorphs IMpenetrable INedible Compounds Secretary-of-state highschool

Word Formation

COMPLEX WORD

Introducción aquí

Constitution

UN

nal

un

Prefix

suffix

Stem

• Affixes are morphemes that modify the meaning of the root. An affix added before the root is called a prefix (un-ending); an affix added after the root is called a suffix (kind-ness).

Affixationis a basic means of forming words

suffixation

• is characteristic of noun and adjective formation
• does not only modify the lexical meaning of the stem,
• but transfers the word to another part of speech care (n) / care — less (adj).

prefixation

• is typical of verb formation
• modifies the lexical meaning of stems

• joins the part of speech the unprefixed word belongs to, e.g. usual /un — usual.

suffixes vs inflections

• Inflections are morphemes used to change grammar forms (not meaning) of the word, e.g.: work — works — worked—working. English is not a highly inflected language.

Inflection also occurs when..

• There is internal vowel or consontant change

Tooth teeth Give gave Far further Advice advise

• When the inflected form is identical to the non-inflected form

Deer deer Put put Fish fish This is also known as syncretism

• An alternative word is used for a particular inflectional meaning

Be is/am/are was/were Go went gone

• Suffixes can form a new part of speech, e.g.: beauty — beautiful. They can also change the meaning of the root, e.g.: black — blackish.
• Inflections are morphemes used to change grammar forms of the word, e.g.: work — works — worked—working. English is not a highly inflected language.

Derivation Morpheme

Some affixes express lexical relationahip by forming new words when attached to basic words encouragement, irresistible, worker.

allomorphs (from Greek allos "other")

All the representatives of the given morpheme are called allomorphs of that morpheme. An allomorph is a positional variant of that or this morpheme occurring in a specific environment.

Examples of allomorphs

• an orange, an accent, a car
• cats, dogs, judges (the plural morpheme –s)
• assert /assert-ion, permit/permiss-ive, include/inclus-ive, electric/electric-ity, impress/impress-ion
• Impossible, incredible

Compound Words

• Word-composition is the combination of two or more existing words to create a new word
• e.g. campsite (N+N), bluebird (A+N), whitewash (A+V), in-laws (P+N), jumpsuit (V+N).

Word-Composition

• In most compounds the rightmost morpheme determines the category of the entire word,
• e.g. greenhouse is a noun because its rightmost component is a noun, spoonfeed is a verb because feed also belongs to this category, and
• nationwide is an adjective just as wide is.

6.1. Properties of compounds

• How can compounds in English be written? - Differently:
• as single words HIGHSCHOOL
• with an intervening hyphen, SISTER-IN-LAW
• as separate words. ROW BOAT

Conversion (definition)

• It is a kind of word formation.
• The process of making new parts of speech without the addition of an affix.
• It is a productive way of forming words in English.
• It is sometimes called zero derivation.

Examples of coversion

• He was knocked out in the first round.
• Round the number off to the nearest tenth.
• The neighbors gathered round our barbecue.
• The moon was bright and round.
• People came from all the country round.

Conversion

Prof. Smirnitsky A. I. in his works on the English language treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words. Other linguists (H. Marchand, V.N. Yartseva, Yu.A. Zhluktenko, A.Y. Zagoruiko, I.V. Arnold) treat conversion as a combined morphological and syntactic way of word-building, as a new word appears not in isolation but in a definite environment of other words.

The three most common types of conversion

• verbs derived from nouns (to butter, to ship),
• nouns derived from verbs (a survey, a call),
• verbs derived from adjectives (to empty).

Less common types of conversion

• nouns from:

adjectives (a bitter, the poor, a final), from phrases, e.g. a down-and-out,

• verbs from prepositions (up the price, out e.g. diplomats were outed from the country; Truth will out. - Истина станет известной)

Other Types of Word Formation

• back-formation or disaffixation (baby-sitter — to baby-sit). Back-formation is a process that creates a new word by removing a real or supposed affix from another word in the language.
• sound interchange (speak — speech, blood — bleed), and sound imitation (walkie-talkie, brag rags, to giggle);
• distinctive change ('conduct — to con 'duct, 'increase — to in crease, 'subject — to subject);

Other Types of Word Formation

blending: these are words that are created from parts of two already existing items, usually the first part of one and the final part of the other:

• brunch from breakfast and lunch,
• smog from smoke and fog
• clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic word by deleting one or more syllables: prof for professor, burger for hamburger.

Other Types of Word Formation

acronymy: NATO, NASA, WAC, UNESCO. Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of the words in a phrase and pronouncing them as a word. (names of organizations and in terminology).

• NASA stands for National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NA TO — North Atlantic Treaty Organization

Other Types of Word Formation

onomatopoeia, i.e. formations of words from sounds that resemble those associated with the object or action to be named, or that seem suggestive of its qualities. e.g. hiss, buzz, meow, cock-a-doodle-doo, and cuckoo