Pure Substances (Title Page)

Pure Substances

START

Index

Change of State

Mixtures & Solutions

Pure Substances

Mixtures in the Industry

Polymers

Concentration & Solubility

SECTION 01

Pure Substances

What are Pure Substances?

Most everyday examples of matter contain more than one type of particle. Some types of matter, on the other hand, contain only one type of particle. Sugar is a pure substance because it is made up of only sugar particles. Oxygen is another example of a pure substance. A pure substance is a type of matter that only contains one type of particle.

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Particle Theory of Matter

• All matter is made of particles
• All particles in a pure substance are identical (no two different pure substances have the same particles)
• All particles have a space in between each other.
• All particles are always moving - more energy
• All particles are attracted to one another

What is Particle Theory?

The particle theory of matter explains what scientists have discovered about these microscopic particles. Many things you see in everyday life can be explained using particle theory.

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Particle Theory #1: All matter is made of particles

All matter is made up of tiny particles. Different types of matter are made up of different types of particles. For example, the particles that make up water are different from the particles that make up glass. Every atom in the universe is made up of microscopic particles. Different types of particles make up various types of matter. The particles themselves have no resemblance to the substance they make up. A single particle of aluminium, for example, does not resemble a piece of aluminium. A single molecule of water has nothing in common with the water in a lake in terms of appearance or behaviour. Aluminum particles behave like aluminium and water particles behave like water only when a sufficient number of them are gathered together.

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Particle Theory #2: All particles in a pure substance are identical (no two different pure substances have the same particles)

All particles in a pure substance are identical, according to the second assertion in the particle theory of matter. This means that all the particles in a pure substance, such as water, are the same. A pure substance is one that has not been contaminated by any other solution or substance and cannot be separated any more.

Particle Theory #3: All particles have space between them

There is space between matter particles. The particles that make up matter are always moving. Solids, liquids, and gases are the three phases of matter. The amount of space available is determined by the matter's phase. Solid particles have the smallest amount of space between them, whereas gas particles have the largest amount of space between them. The particles can be dust particles, molecules, atoms, subatomic particles (such as neutrons, protons, and electrons), or the particles outlined in the standard model (quarks, leptons etc). However, there are voids between the particles in every cluster of particles.

Particle Theory #4: All particles are always moving

Particles in solids are constantly vibrating (moving back and forth). Kinetic energy is the vibrational motion of particles in solids. Heat causes solid particles to vibrate faster, giving them more kinetic energy. When a solid, liquid, or gas sample is heated, it expands.

Are particles in gas always moving? Particles in a gas move in a straight line all the time. Because the kinetic energy of the molecule exceeds the attractive force between them, they are much farther apart and freely move away from each other. Most of the time, there are no attractive forces between particles.

Particle Theory #5: All particles are attracted to one another

Opposite charges attract. It has been demonstrated, however, that they interact at right angles, inducing a spin (angular momentum), and that if the energies are equal but opposite in charge, a stable photon can be formed, perfectly balanced between attraction and repulsion, producing a wavelength proportional to the rotational radius.

Every particle of matter is attracted by or gravitates to every other particle of matter with a force inversely proportional to the squares of their distances.

Isaac Newton

"Now the smallest particles of matter my cohere by the strongest attractions, and compose bigger particles of weaker virture...there are therefore agents in nature able to make the particles of bodies stick together by very strong attraction. And it is the business of experimental philosophy to find them out"

ISAAC NEWTON

What is Matter?

Matter is defined as any substance that has mass and occupies space in science. In a nutshell, it's anything that can be manipulated. Light, music, and other kinds of energy are examples of phenomena that are not matter. A vacuum is a space that is devoid of all matter.

Properties of Matter

Definitions

Qualitative - How good it's quality isQuantitative - How much quantity Viscosity - How easily a liquid pours. Resistance to move Solubility - How well a substance dissolves in another substance Strength - Resistance to breaking Elasticity - Ability to return to the original form after stretching Hardness - May require tests or measurements to describe Malleable -The ability to be hit or bent out of shape without breaking

Main Properties of Matter

Mass

Volume

The density and kind of atoms in any given object are described by the term mass. The kilogram (kg) is the SI unit of mass, though it can alternatively be measured in pounds (lb). Consider a pillowcase filled with feathers and another filled with bricks to immediately grasp the concept of mass. Which one has the most mass? The bricks have more mass because the atoms in them are heavier and denser. Despite the fact that the pillowcases are the same size and are filled to the same extent, one has significantly more mass than the other.

A liquid, solid, or gas' volume is the amount of three-dimensional space it takes up. The most common units for expressing volume are liters, cubic meters, gallons, milliliters, teaspoons, and ounces, though there are many others. Important Points to Remember:

• The three-dimensional space occupied by a material or contained by a surface is referred to as volume.
• The cubic meter is the standard unit of volume in the International System of Units (SI) (m3).
• The liter (L) is the volume unit in the metric system. A liter is equal to a 10-centimeter cube in volume.

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What is Archimedes' Principle?

According to Archimedes' Principle, the upward buoyant force exerted on a body submerged in a fluid, whether wholly or partially, is equal to the weight of the fluid that the body displaces. Archimedes' principle is a fundamental physics law in fluid mechanics.

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EMPEZAR

SECTION 02

Change of State

Three States of Matter

Solid water is represented by snowflakes. Whether water is frozen (ice), liquid (water), or gas (water vapour), water particles are always water particles. Water, like all other types of matter, may exist in three states: solid, liquid, and gas. In each state, the particles are identical. Particles do not freeze or melt on their own. Rather, their mobility alters. In addition, the particle configurations differ in each state. In each state, matter also behaves differently.

Liquids

Gases

Solids

17

There is no such thing as a specific volume or shape for a gas. A gas, on the other hand, takes on the shape and volume of its container. When air is pumped into a deflated basketball, the air particles occupy a spherical region with a volume equal to the inflated ball's volume.

Although a liquid has a defined volume, it lacks a defined shape. A liquid, on the other hand, takes the shape of its container. A liquid is anything like milk. If a carton contains 250 mL of milk, the volume of the milk will be 250 mL. If you pour milk into a cylindrical glass, the volume does not change, but the shape alters.

A solid has a distinct shape as well as a distinct volume. The volume of anything is the amount of space it takes up. A coin, for example, is made of metal. The metal has reached a condition of solidity. As a result, the shape and volume of the coin remain unchanged (assuming the coin's temperature remains constant).

Particles of Solids, Liquids, and Gases

Whether the matter is a solid, liquid, or gas, the particles in a sample of matter remain the same. The difference is in the way the particles travel and are arranged. Solids, liquids, and gases all have various particle motions. The particles are also arranged differently in each state of matter. In solids and liquids, particles are closer together than in gases. The particles are held together by the forces of attraction between them as a result of their near proximity. This explains why a solid's or liquid's volume doesn't change greatly. Because gas particles are further apart, the forces of attraction cannot hold them together in a particular volume.

What is matter made of?

Particles!!

Atoms and molecules - Periodic Table. Solids are in a lattic structure expect for water.

Solid

Ice is the only thing that floats in it's solid form

Gas

Matter and Changes in State

Matter has the ability to transform from one state to another. When a sample of matter is heated or chilled, it can change state. When ice is heated, the water particles move more quickly, causing the water to turn from solid to liquid. As the particles travel faster and farther apart as the temperature rises, the liquid water transforms into a gas. A gas's particles are much further apart than those of a solid or a liquid.

What is the Boiling Point of Water?

The boiling point of water at 1 atmosphere of pressure is 100 degrees Celsius (212 degrees Fahrenheit) (sea level). The value, however, is not constant. The boiling point of water is determined by air pressure, which varies with altitude. As you gain height (e.g., ascending a mountain), water boils at a lower temperature, and as air pressure rises, it boils at a greater temperature (coming back down to sea level or going below it). The boiling point of water is also affected by its purity. Impurities in water (such as salty water) cause it to boil at a higher temperature than pure water.

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Boiling Point vs Evaporation

Evaporation is not the same as boiling. Evaporation is a surface phenomena that occurs at any temperature and occurs when there is insufficient liquid pressure on all sides to keep molecules at the liquid edge from escaping as vapor. Boiling, on the other hand, impacts all of the molecules in the liquid, not just the ones on the top. Bubbles develop when molecules in a liquid convert to vapor.

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Freezing Points

A liquid's freezing point is the temperature at which it solidifies. A rise in pressure, like a rise in melting point, tends to elevate the freezing point as well. The freezing point of mixtures and specific organic components such as lipids is lower than the melting point. When a combination starts to freeze, the solid that emerges has a different composition than the liquid at first. The creation of solids alters the composition of the remaining liquid, often lowering the freezing point over time. Melting, filtering mixes, and freezing are all done using the same mechanism. The transformation of a substance from a liquid to a solid state is known as freezing. It refers to the transformation of a substance from one state of matter to another. The solid and liquid states coexist in equilibrium at the freezing point. A substance's freezing point is determined by air pressure.

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SECTION 03

Mixtures & Solutions

What are Mixtures?

Solids, liquids, and gases, as well as combinations of these, can make up a mixture. Steel, batteries, and cookies are all solid state combinations. In the liquid state, antifreeze and milk are a combination. The air you breathe is made up of a variety of gases. Many of the mixes we use, such as those found inside compact fluorescent light bulbs (CFLs) and batteries, contain pure compounds that can be detrimental to the environment if they escape. Mercury is present in CFLs. Some batteries are made of cadmium, while others are made of lead. Mercury, cadmium, and lead are pure metals that are poisonous to both animals and humans.

Mixtures and Solutions

Definitions

Mixtures -A form of matter that contains multiple particle types.Homogeneous - Homogeneous mixtures are consistent blends of two or more pure substances that appear to be one single pure entity. Heterogeneous - Heterogeneous mixes are those in which distinct portions can be seen. Mechanical Mixtures - Mixtures with layers Solution - Homogeneous, and can only be separated by boiling or distillation Colloid - A homogeneous mixture, contains microscopic particles that are invisible to the naked eye. Another material has an even distribution of particles. It's possible that it'll appear opaque or cloudy. It will not separate if left alone. No particles will be captured if poured through a filter, but light will scatter if you shine a light through it (Tyndall Effect) Tyndall Effect - Colloidal solutions best illustrate the Tyndall effect, which is based on light scattering. When you shine a light through a colloidal solution, light scatters. It is named after John Tyndall, an Irish physicist. The Tyndall effect is a phenomena that aids in the visibility of light paths. Suspension - A mixture that is heterogeneous. The particles are visible with the naked eye. The particles will settle to the bottom if you wait long enough. Some of the particles can be caught if you pour through a filter.

Solvents, Solutes, Solutions, & Mixtures

Solvents + Solute= Solution or Mixtures How do you know if it's a mixture or a solution? Solutions are always clear and always homogeneous, while mixtures are a combination of substances. For example, if you put oil over water, it's a mixture because it doesn't look completely clear and it's also non-polar. Non-polar means that it isn't attracted to water and it doesn't mix with it. It is hydrophobic. Polar means that it likes to be attracted to water, it attracts to water, then it mixes up with it, it is hydrophilic. Solvents are usually a liquid, and they are what the solute is being dissolved in. There are fewer solvent particles in a concentrated solution, but more in a diluted solution. The solute goes into the solvent, in a dilute solution there's less solute particles, but more in concentrated solutions. They can come in a solid, liquid, or gas form (all three states).

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SECTION 04

Polymers

Polymers

Polymers are huge molecules formed by chemically connecting a number of building pieces together.Each of the chain's links in an artificial polymer will often be similar to its neighbours. However, in proteins, DNA, and other natural polymers, chain links frequently differ from one another. Polymers can sometimes form branching networks instead of single chains. The molecules, regardless of their shape, are massive. They're so huge, in fact, that they're classified as macromolecules by scientists.

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Pros of Polymers

Cons of Polymers

• Assisted the military
• Produced everyday material
• Contributed in the advancement of science
• Reused experiments that didn't work
• Chemical resistance is higher in polymers than it is in metals.
• Unlike metal, polymer parts do not require any post-treatment polishing.
• The weight of polymer and composite materials can be up to ten times that of traditional metals.
• In chemically hostile settings, polymer materials perform significantly better than metals. This extends the aircraft's life and prevents costly maintenance caused by corroding metal components.
• Polymers are both thermally and electrically insulating and radar absorbent by nature.

• Plastics melt at a far faster rate than metals, hence they can't endure really high temperatures.
• The strength to size ratio of polymers is lower than that of metals.
• It is difficult to machine and has a limited machining speed.
• Because the polymer's heat capacity is so low, it can't be employed in heat-related applications.
• Polymer can't make heavy structures since its structural stiffness is so low.
• Because some polymers cannot be recycled, whereas all metals can, disposal becomes a problem.
• Kills turtles

SECTION 05

Concentration & Solubility

This is the definition of "concentration" in the dictionary, let's go more in depth!

What is Concentration?

The amount of a substance in a defined space is referred to as concentration in chemistry. Another meaning is the ratio of a solute in a solution to either the solvent or the entire solution. But how do you calculate concentration? You use math!! Math is in everything, and so is science! Math and science are everywhere even if you don't see them. The most common way to express concentration is in terms of mass per unit volume. The solute concentration, on the other hand, can be expressed in moles or units of volume. Concentration could be measured per unit mass rather than volume. Concentration can be computed for any mixture, however, it is most commonly used for chemical solutions.

Formula for Concentration

Concentration =

Mass of Solute (g)

Solution (L)

Diluted, Concentrated, Saturated, and Super-Saturated Solutions

• Diluted solutions have very little solute in it and they can dissolve a lot more solute. Concentrated solutions have a lot of solute in them and could dissolve a little more solute. Saturated solutions are when the solute cannot dissolve anymore, then the solute particles will just rest at the bottom. Super-saturated solutions are when the solute can't dissolve anymore and begins to crystalize.

What is Solubility?

Solubility is the ability of a solute to dissolve in solvent (usually a liquid) and form a solution. A substance's solubility is mostly determined by the solvent employed, as well as temperature and pressure. Factors that affect solubility would be the temperature, the pressure, the solute and solvent.

Formula for Solubility

Solubility =

Mass of Solute (g)

100 mL of Solvent at certain temperature

Steps for Success

When calculating Solubility or Concentration

Step 4: Therefore Statement

Step 3: Plug-In & Solve

Step 1: Givens

Step 2: Formula

Write down what you have discovered. Ex. Therefore the solubility is __g/100ml

Write down the formula for solubility or concentration

Write down the Givens

Take your givens and plug them into the formula

Separation

Definitions

Sorting - Moving one or more parts into a different containerSkimming - Remove the floating layer from a mixture Floating - Skim off the part that floats Settling - Wait for a part of the mixture to settle then pour out the other Magnet - Attracts metals and alloys Sieving - Sieving is to keep one part on the mesh, but the other falls through it (sieve has larger holes) Filtration - Filter is the same as sieving, but holes are finer (smaller). Dissolving - Mix completely with a solvent to create a solution Evaporation - Evaporate/ separate with heat (only works with solid and liquid) Residue - This is what the remaining parts from sieving/filtration are called

But what about separating liquids and liquids?

Centrifuge

Distillation

Uses Condensation & Evaporation

Takes Density into Consideration

Distillation

Distillation uses condensation and evaporation. We use distillation so we can recover the solute and the solvent. When the solution is heated, the solvent vaporises, separating the solvent from the solute. A cool surface causes gas to condense and gather. There are many types of distillation. These include:

• Simple distillation
• Fractional distillation
• Steam distillation
• Vacuum distillation
• Air-sensitive vacuum distillation
• Short path distillation
• Zone distillation

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Centrifuge

How a Centrifuge Works

Types and Uses of a Centrifuge

The several types of centrifuges use the same technique but have different applications. The key distinctions between them are the rotational speed and rotor design. The rotor is the device's rotating unit. Swinging head rotors contain a hinge that allows sample vessels to swing outward as the rate of spin rises, while continuous tubular centrifuges have a single chamber rather than multiple sample chambers. Separating Molecules and Isotopes: Ultracentrifuges and high-speed centrifuges spin at such high speeds that they can be used to separate molecules of different weights or even atom isotopes. Isotope separation is utilised in scientific study as well as the production of nuclear fuel and weapons. A gas centrifuge, for example, might be used to enrich uranium since the heavier isotope is drawn outward more than the lighter isotope. In the laboratory: laboratory centrifuges spin at high speeds as well. They can range in size from huge enough to stand on the floor to small enough to sit on a counter. A rotor with angled drilled holes holds sample tubes in a conventional device. Because the sample tubes are angled and centrifugal force occurs in the horizontal plane, particles move a small distance before colliding with the tube's wall, allowing dense material to glide down. Fixed-angle rotors are prevalent in lab centrifuges, but swinging-bucket rotors are also frequent. Isolating components of immiscible liquids and suspensions is done with these equipment. Separating blood components, isolating DNA, and purifying chemical samples are just a few of the applications. There are many more, but these are just examples.

The virtual force that pulls spinning objects outward is known as centrifugal force, and it is what gives a centrifuge its name. The real physical force at work is centripetal force, which pulls spinning objects inward. A nice example of these forces in action is spinning a pail of water. The water is drawn within and does not spill if the bucket rotates quickly enough. When a bucket is filled with a sand and water mixture, spinning it causes centrifugation. Both the water and the sand in the bucket will be attracted to the bucket's outside edge, but the dense sand particles will settle to the bottom, while the lighter water molecules will be moved toward the centre, according to the sedimentation principle. The centripetal acceleration effectively simulates heavier gravity, but it's vital to remember that artificial gravity is a range of values based on how close an object is to the axis of rotation, not a fixed value. Because an object travels a longer distance for each spin, the effect is magnified as it moves further out.

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Ways to Dissolve Quickly

There are many ways to make sure a solute dissolves in a solvent. There's temperature and heat, pressure and agitation, surface area, and molecular structure. If you heat up the solvent, it will transfer heat to the solute, the heat adds kinetic energy to the solute. It weakens the covalent bonds and allows the solvent particles to come in and then they break into tinier bits. If you add pressure and agitation the solute will come into contact with the solvent. To make sure the solute will dissolve faster you can make sure that the surface area is bigger because if it were more compacted it would take longer to disperse and come into contact with the solvent. In other words, the bigger the surface area the easier it is to dissolve.

SECTION 06

Mixtures in the Industry

Mixtures in the Industry

• Petroleum Refining
• Uranium & Nuclear Power
• Wheat Refining
• Sewage Treatment
• Waste Management

What are Mixtures in the Industry?

There are many industries that separate mixtures into pure products. Most are extremely dangerous and have to make sure that it's safe. There are many safety precautions to make sure nothing disastrous happens. The three main industries are petroleum refining, nuclear power, and wheat refining. The other two are waste management and sewage treatment.

Sewage and Waste Management

Petroleum Refining

The industrial process of producing useable petroleum products from crude oil is known as petroleum refining. Crude oil is a black, viscous liquid that isn't useful in its natural state. It is necessary to refine crude oil in order to obtain useable products. A petroleum refinery is a facility where usable products are extracted from crude oil. In this post, we'll learn more about the process of petroleum refining, often known as crude oil refining. Crude oil, often known as petroleum, is made up of a variety of hydrocarbons. The crude oil refining process separates crude oil into its constituent parts in order to create valuable new products. Petroleum refining is a complicated process that necessitates the use of high-cost industrial facilities. All crude oil refining for the creation of useful products involves the following basic crude oil refining process phases.

• Distillation/Separation
• Atmospheric Distillation
• Vacuum Distillation
• Conversion
• Cracking
• Reforming
• Alkylation
• Polymerization
• Isomerization
• Coking
• Visbreaking
• Treatment, and
• Blending

Uranium & Nuclear Power

To separate uranium, you need to obtain uranium ore. To separate the uranium and the ore, you have to crush it. Then you have to add lixivant which is a solution which dissolves the ore. The residue is separated with a sieve. What you have left is a uranium solution. You evaporate the solution and the water is then evaporated. It leaves a solid which can be turned into pure uranium and can be used to generate nuclear energy/power. To dispose of the pure substance you must put it underwater for 5 years. Then it is stored in a dry underground storage facility. It's been agreed that this is the best place to store nuclear waste because no one can reach it and it is a non-radioactive place. Uranium can be disposed when you melt it with a certain type of melted glass. After it is done cooling you can put it in a deep mine that isn't used (so no one can access it).

Wheat Refining

Flour is made by using mechanical sorting. The wheat and it's stalk is separated by a machine that sorts it. Then a sample of this is taken and examined to make sure that it's safe to be consumed and contains no diseases. When they're sure that it's safe only then it is used for flour. Then the grains of the wheat go through a sieve to separate all the rocks and other unwanted things. Then an important vacuum sucks out all the dust from the grains. Then a magnet is used to take out metal that is hiding in the grains. There are two main types of flour; white flour and whole grain flour. In the grain there are many different layers. There's the bran, the endosperm and the wheat germ. The bran is the outer layer, the endosperm is the middle layer, and finally the wheat germ is the inner layer. To separate these layers to make flour, wheat refining industries use milling. Milling crushes the endosperm and becomes semolina. The semolina is crushed a couple more times, but there are still little bits of bran on the semolina. In a process similar to skimming, the bran is blown off by air. Since bran is lighter than the semolina it is blown off. Then it is sifted until it becomes a white powdery flour. As for the germ - it is sold for healthy nutrient supplies.

Waste Management

Waste Management uses several separation techniques. The main four are: landfilling, underground injection, detoxification, waste incineration. Landfilling is a place where you can dump the waste. Underground injection is a series of underground wells. There are pipes that connect underground, they put the waste underground. Detoxification is the process of removing toxic wastes by converting the harmful wastes into unharmful wastes. Waste incineration is just what it sounds like. You put the waste into a combustion chamber and you incinerate it.

Sewage Treatment

Primary Treatment

Sewage Treatment

Sewage treatment is the mixture of the water that is found from your pipes of toilet water or sink water. It passes through the drains and pipes until it passes to a sewage treatment plant. The treatment will break down the solid particles, or any organic material. The Three main stages are Primary treatment, secondary treatment, and tertiary treatment.

Primary treatment is the first step. To begin, half of the hardened particles in the mixture are removed. The mixture is then passed through a metal grid. This will exclude items that are difficult to breakdown. After that, the mixture is let to settle. Solids will primarily sink to the bottom.

Secondary Treatment

The residual sewage water will then be pumped through bacteria-infested tanks. The bacteria will break down any remaining human waste as oxygen bubbles through the mixture. The mixture is then settled once again.

Tertiary Treatment

Finally, nitrogen and phosphorus contaminants are eliminated. This water will also be filtered and subjected to ultraviolet radiation while passing through an ozone bubble filter. Finally, chlorine is used to kill any remaining living creatures. This water is now safe to use in rivers, oceans, lakes, and other bodies of water.

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I hope you learned a lot!!