LAW Summer work human rights

2021 Summer work LAW

Human Rights &The Nature of Law

EQUALITY

Rules and Theory

INDEPENDANCE

FAIRNESS

Further Law preparartion (Human Rights)

• Outline on the rules of human rights law
• Overview of the theory of human rights law

Human rights are the fundamental rights and freedoms that belong to every single one of us, anywhere in the world. Human rights apply no matter where you are from, what you believe in, or how you choose to live your life. Human rights can never be taken away, but they can sometimes be restricted – for example if a person breaks the law, or in the interests of national security. These rights and freedoms are based on values like dignity, fairness, equality, respect and independence. But human rights are not just abstract concepts – they are defined and protected by law.

In Britain our human rights are protected by the Human Rights Act 1998.

RESPECT

They protect you in many areas of your day-to-day life, including:

• your right to have and express your own opinions
• your right to an education
• your right to a private and family life
• your right not to be mistreated or wrongly punished by the state

DIGNITY

The Human Rights Act makes the rights and freedoms in the European Convention on Human Rights directly enforceable in the UK. It means you can defend your rights in UK courts and it compels public organisations – like the Government, police and local councils – to treat everyone equally, with fairness, dignity and respect.

Human rights have some key qualities, agreed by the international community. They must be recognised as: • Universal: they belong to every single person • Inalienable: they cannot be taken away from us • Indivisible and interdependent: governments should not be able to pick and choose which rights are respected.

Protection of the individual's human rights and Freedoms in the uk

Further Law preparartion (Human Rights)

• Overview of the development of the human rights in the UK, including Magna Carta 1215 and the bill of rights 1688

1689: English Bill of Rights The Bill was a landmark moment in the political history of Britain because it limited the powers of the monarch and set out the rights of Parliament. It included the freedom to petition the monarch (a step towards political protest rights); the freedom from cruel and unusual punishments (the forerunner to the ban on torture in our Human Rights Act) and the freedom from being fined without trial.

1215: the Magna Carta This English Charter acknowledged for the first time that subjects of the crown had legal rights and that laws could apply to kings and queens too. The Magna Carta was also the first step in giving us the right to a trial by a jury of our peers.

Development of the human rights in the UK

1679: Habeas Corpus Act Another crucial step towards the right to a fair trial, this law protected and extended the right of a detained person to go before a judge to determine whether the detention was legal.

1948: Universal Declaration of Human Rights The Universal Declaration of Human Rights is the foundation for modern human rights. After the Second World War, the international community recognised the need for a collective expression of human rights. Adopted by the General Assembly of the United Nations in 1948, the declaration sets out a range of rights and freedoms to which everyone, everywhere in the world, is entitled.

Protection of the individual's human rights and Freedoms in the uk

Further Law preparartion (Human Rights)

• History of the European Courts of Human rights

1965: International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination This was the first human rights treaty adopted by the United Nations (UN). The International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (CERD) defines what constitutes race discrimination and sets out a comprehensive framework for ensuring that civil, political, economic and social rights are enjoyed by all, without distinction of race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin. The convention is the international human rights treaty that sets out a comprehensive framework for ensuring that civil, political, economic and social rights are enjoyed by all, without distinction of race, colour, descent or national or ethnic origin. The UK ratified CERD in 1969.

1950: the European Convention on Human Rights Members of the Council of Europe used the Universal Declaration of Human Rights to draw up this treaty to secure basic rights both for their own citizens and for other nationalities within their borders. The Convention was signed in Rome in 1950, ratified by the UK in 1951 and came into force in 1953. Unlike the Universal Declaration, the European Convention on Human Rights contains rights which can be relied on in a court of law.

1976: Race Relations Act The Race Relations Act was established to prevent race discrimination. It made race discrimination unlawful in employment, training, housing, education and the provision of goods, facilities and services.

1975: Sex Discrimination Act The act made sex discrimination illegal in the areas of employment, education and the provision of goods, facilities and services.

1966: UK signs up to the European Court of Human Rights Six years after the European Court of Human Rights was created, the UK granted what is known as ‘individual petition’ - the right for people to take their cases directly to the court in Strasbourg.

1965: Race Relations Act This was the first legislation in the UK to address racial discrimination. Although it was criticised because it only covered discrimination in specified public places, the act laid the foundations for more effective legislation. It also set up the Race Relations Board to consider complaints brought under the act.

1979: Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) Often referred to as the ‘bill of rights for women’, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women defined what constitutes discrimination against women and sets out the core principles to protect their rights.

1976: International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) The general principles expressed by the Universal Declaration of Human Rights were given specific legal force through these two covenants. The Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) and the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR) make up the International Bill of Rights.

Protection of the individual's human rights and Freedoms in the uk

Further Law preparartion (Human Rights)

• Impact of the Human rights act 1998
• the entrenched nature of the human rights act 1998 in the devolution settlements of Scotland, Wales and nOrthern ireland

1989: UN Convention on the Rights of the Child Governments worldwide promised all children the same rights by adopting the Convention on the Rights of the Child, also known as the CRC or UNCRC. The basic premise is that children (under the age of 18) are born with the same fundamental freedoms and inherent rights as all human beings, but with specific additional needs because of their vulnerability.

1984: UN Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment The most comprehensive international treaty dealing with torture, the Convention against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment became the first binding international instrument exclusively dedicated to preventing some of the most serious human rights violations of our time.

1995: Disability Discrimination Act This Act represented the first far-reaching legislation on discrimination against disabled people. It covered key areas of life such as employment and training, education, goods, facilities and services, premises and transport.

1998: Human Rights Act In force since October 2000, the Human Rights Act incorporated into domestic law the rights and liberties enshrined in the European Convention on Human Rights. People in the UK no longer had to take complaints about human rights breaches to the European Court in Strasbourg – British courts could now hear these cases.

2006: Universal Periodic Review The UN’s new review system meant that, for the first time, the human rights records of all Member States would come under regular scrutiny through the Universal Periodic Review. It gave a clear message that all countries have scope to improve the way human rights are promoted and protected.

2010: the Equality Act The Equality Act brought together more than 116 separate pieces of legislation into one single act - a new, streamlined legal framework to protect the rights of individuals and advance equality of opportunity for all.

2008: UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) The UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (UNCRPD) was the first human rights treaty of the 21st Century. It reaffirms disabled people's human rights and signals a further major step in their journey to becoming full and equal citizens.

Protection of the individual's human rights and Freedoms in the uk

Further Law preparartion (Human Rights)

• Impact of the Human rights act 1998
• the entrenched nature of the human rights act 1998 in the devolution settlements of Scotland, Wales and nOrthern ireland

https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201516/ldselect/ldeucom/139/13911.htm

SCOTLAND The greatest difference, was in the constraints on the Scottish Parliament and on the Scottish Government: “we have a very hard barrier against taking any action or passing legislation that is in violation either of convention rights or of EU law.” If the Scottish Parliament passed primary or subordinate legislation, or the Scottish Government undertook an administrative action, which was found to violate ECHR or EU law, it could be struck down by courts. The specific term was that it is “not law”. The Law Society of Scotland agreed that repeal and replacement of the HRA would, in terms of the guidance, require the amendment of provisions of the Scotland Act which affect the competences of the Scottish Parliament and Government

IRELAND The Northern Ireland Assembly and executive acts of the Northern Ireland Executive must conform to the ECHR and to EU law, and can be struck down by courts if they do not. Although human rights are devolved, and the Assembly is empowered (and obliged) to act to observe and implement the ECHR, the Assembly and Northern Ireland Ministers are disabled from amending the Human Rights Act 1998 (as with Scotland and Wales). This is because the Human Rights Act constitutes an entrenched provision, meaning that it cannot “be modified by an Act of the Assembly or subordinate legislation made, confirmed or approved by a Minister or Northern Ireland department.”

WALES The Welsh government and national assembly are “public authorities” for the purposes of the HRA, which means that they cannot act in a way which is incompatible with ECHR rights. Secondly, as in Scotland, Welsh Ministers are under a statutory duty, by virtue of the Government of Wales Act 2006, not to act or legislate incompatibly with “Convention rights”; those rights being defined as having the same meaning as in the HRA. Incompatibility with Convention rights can also be raised as a devolution issue under Schedule 9 to the Government of Wales Act 2006. Any provision in an Assembly Bill is outside the Assembly’s legislative competence if it is incompatible with ECHR rights.

Article 5: Right to liberty and security

Focuses on protecting individuals' freedom from unreasonable detention, as opposed to protecting personal safety.

1. Everyone has the right to liberty and security of person.

2. Everyone who is arrested shall be informed promptly, in a language which he understands, of the reasons for his arrest and of any charge against him.

Restrictions

5. Everyone who has been the victim of arrest or detention in contravention of the provisions of this Article shall have an enforceable right to compensation.

• You have been found guilty of a crime and sent to prison
• You have not done something a court has ordered you to do
• There is a reasonable suspicion thet you have committed a crime.

-Someone is trying to stop you committing a crime or stop you running away.

• You have a mental health condition and you need to be detained.
• You are capable of spreading infectious disease.
• You are attempting to enter the country illegally.
• You are going to be deported or extradited

3. Everyone arrested or detained in accordance with the provisions of paragragh 1(c) of this Article shall be brought promptly before a judge or other authoritised by law to exercise judicial power and shall be entitled to trial within a reasonable time or ro release pending trial. Release may be conditioned by guarantees to appear for trial.

4. Everyone who is deprived of his liberty by arrest or detention shall be entitled to take proceedings by which the lawfulness of his detention shall be decided speedily by a court and his release ordered if the detention is not lawful.

Case of LB Hilingdon v. Steven Neary 2011 Mr Neary had autism and needed temporary care while his father was unwell. The father assumed that Steven would be placed in his usual respite care home, however the council placed himin a specialist unit because of concerns. His father expected his son to return within a few weeks, but the council insisted that he stayed in the unit , his father challenged this decision. After a year of detainment the Court of Protection ruled that the coucil had breached his Article 5 rights and deprived him of his liberty. The court ordered that Steven was to return home.

No one shall be deprived of his liberty save in the following cases and in the accordance with a procedure prescribed by law: ` the lawful detention of a person after conviction by a competent court `the lawful arrest or detention of a person for non-complience with a lawful order of court `the lawful arrest or detention of a person effected for the purpose of bringing him before the competent legal authority on reasonabel suspicion on committing an offence `the detention of a minor by lawful order for the purpose of educational supervision `the lawful detention of persons for the prevention of spreading infectious diseases `the lawful arrest or detention of a person to prevent his effecting an unauthorised entry into the country.

Article 6: Right to a fair trial

You have the right to a fair trial and public trial or hearing if: ¬You are charged with a criminal offence and have to go to a court, or ¬A pubic authority is making a decision that has an impact upon your civil rights or obligation.

1. In the determination of his civil rights and obligations or of any criminal charge against him, everyone is entitled to a fair and public hearing within a reasonable time by an independent and impartial tribunal established by law.

2. Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.

3. Everyone charged with a criminal offence has the following minimum rights:

Restrictions

The right to a fair and public hearing does not always apply to cases involving:

• immigration law
• extradition
• tax, and
• voting rights.

There is also no automatic right to an appeal (an application to a higher court for the reversal of the decision of a lower court).The right of access to the courts can be restricted, for example, if you:

• keep bringing cases without merit
• miss the time-limit for bringing a case.

There are times when the public and press are denied access to a hearing. This can happen in the interests of protecting:

• morals
• public order or national security
• children and young people, or
• privacy.

The courts might also decide to exclude the public or press if they think that their presence is not in the interests of justice.

• to be informed promptly, in a language which he understands and in detail, of the nature and cause of the accusation against him
• to have adequate time and facilities for the preparation of his defence
• to defend himself in person or through legal assistance of his own choosing or, if he has not sufficient means to pay for legal assistance, to be given it free when the interests of justice so require
• to examine or have examined witnesses against him and to obtain the attendance and examination of witnesses on his behalf under the same conditions as witnesses against him
• to have the free assistance of an interpreter if he cannot understand or speak the language used in court.

Case of DG v. Secretary of State for Work and Pensions (ESA) DG appealed against a decision to refuse him Employment and Support Allowance (ESA), which was taken after a medical examination. Even though DG requested Jobcentre Plus to contact his GP, neither the GP nor DG’s social worker were approached for evidence. At the first stage of the independent tribunal process, DG waived his right to put his case in person at an oral hearing. This decision was based on advice from Jobcentre Plus. The appeal was dealt with on paper and dismissed. When DG appealed this decision, the Upper Tribunal found that DG did not have a fair hearing of his appeal as required by Article 6. This decision took into account the bad advice from Jobcentre Plus, the claimant’s mental health problems and the failure of both the Department for Work and Pensions and the tribunal to communicate with his GP.

Article 8: Respect for your private and family life

Article 8 protects your right to respect for your private life, your family life, your home and your correspondence (letters, telephone calls and emails, for example).

1. Everyone has the right to respect for his private and family life, his home and his correspondence.ready to hold stunning creativity, experiences and stories.

Restrictions

2. There shall be no interference by a public authority with the exercise of this right except such as is in accordance with the law and is necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security, public safety or the economic well-being of the country, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others.

There are situations when public authorities can interfere with your right to respect for private and family life, home and correspondence.This is only allowed where the authority can show that its action is lawful, necessary and proportionate in order to:

• protect national security
• protect public safety
• protect the economy
• protect health or morals
• prevent disorder or crime, or
• protect the rights and freedoms of other people.

Action is ‘proportionate’ when it is appropriate and no more than necessary to address the problem concerned.

Goodwin & I v United Kingdom [2002] This case heard in the European Court of Human Rights explored issues for transsexual people in relation to their rights to private life and to marry. The judgment was a landmark decision for the treatment of transsexual people, a group which had not been recognised in UK law as:

• their acquired gender
• able to hold a birth certificate showing their acquired gender, and
• able to marry someone of the opposite gender.

The Court ruled that this treatment violated both the right to private life and the right to marry. The UK Government later introduced the Gender Recognition Act 2004, creating a mechanism to enable all these things.

What is meant by Home?

Article 8: Respect for your private and family life

What is meant by private life?

The right to respect for your home does not give you a right to housing. It is a right to enjoy your existing home peacefully. This means that public authorities should not stop you entering or living in your home without very good reason, and they should not enter without your permission. This applies whether or not you own your home.

You have the right to live your life privately without government interference. The courts have interpreted the concept of ‘private life’ very broadly. It covers things like your right to determine your sexual orientation, your lifestyle, and the way you look and dress. It also includes your right to control who sees and touches your body. For example, this means that public authorities cannot do things like leave you undressed in a busy ward, or take a blood sample without your permission. The concept of private life also covers your right to develop your personal identity and to forge friendships and other relationships. This includes a right to participate in essential economic, social, cultural and leisure activities. In some circumstances, public authorities may need to help you enjoy your right to a private life, including your ability to participate in society. This right means that the media and others can be prevented from interfering in your life. It also means that personal information about you should be kept securely and not shared without your permission, except in certain circumstances.

What is meant by family life?

You have the right to enjoy family relationships without interference from government. This includes the right to live with your family and, where this is not possible, the right to regular contact. ‘Family life’ can include the relationship between an unmarried couple, an adopted child and the adoptive parent, and a foster parent and fostered child.

Article 10 protects your right to hold your own opinions and to express them freely without government interference.The law also protects your freedom to receive information from other people by, for example, being part of an audience or reading a magazine.

Article 10: Freedom of expression

This includes the right to express your views aloud (for example through public protest and demonstrations) or through: ¬published articles, books or leaflets ¬television or radio broadcasting ¬works of art ¬the internet and social media

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of expression. This right shall include freedom to hold opinions and to receive and impart information and ideas without interference by public authority and regardless of frontiers. This Article shall not prevent States from requiring the licensing of broadcasting, television or cinema enterprises.

Restrictions

Although you have freedom of expression, you also have a duty to behave responsibly and to respect other people’s rights.Public authorities may restrict this right if they can show that their action is lawful, necessary and proportionate in order to:

• protect national security, territorial integrity (the borders of the state) or public safety
• prevent disorder or crime
• protect health or morals
• protect the rights and reputations of other people
• prevent the disclosure of information received in confidence
• maintain the authority and impartiality of judges

An authority may be allowed to restrict your freedom of expression if, for example, you express views that encourage racial or religious hatred. However, the relevant public authority must show that the restriction is ‘proportionate’, in other words that it is appropriate and no more than necessary to address the issue concerned.

2. The exercise of these freedoms, since it carries with it duties and responsibilities, may be subject to such formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society, in the interests of national security, territorial disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals, for the protection of the reputation or rights of others, for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or for maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary.

Observer and The Guardian v United Kingdom [1991] The Guardian and The Observer newspapers published excerpts from Peter Wright’s book Spycatcher, which included allegations that MI5 had acted unlawfully. The government obtained a court order preventing the newspapers from printing further material until proceedings relating to a breach of confidence had finished.But when the book was published, The Guardian complained that the continuation of the court order infringed the right to freedom of expression. The European Court of Human Rights said that the court order was lawful because it was in the interests of national security. However, it also said that that wasn't enough reason to continue the newspaper publication ban once the book had been published, because the information was no longer confidential anyway.

Article 11: freedom of assembly and association

Protects your right to protest by holding meetings and demonstrations with other people. The right to form or join a trade union, political party or any other association or voluntary group.

1. Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and to freedom of association with others, including the right to form and to join trade unions for the protection of his interests.

2. No restrictions shall be placed on the exercise of these rights other than such as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society in the interests of national security or public safety, for the prevention of disorder or crime, for the protection of health or morals or for the protection of the rights and freedoms of others. This article shall not prevent the imposition of lawful restrictions on the exercise of these rights by members of the armed forces, of the police or of the administration of the state.

Restrictions

There are some situations where a public authority can restrict your rights to freedom of assembly and association. This is only the case where the authority can show that its action is lawful, necessary and proportionate in order to:

• protect national security or public safety
• prevent disorder or crime
• protect health or morals, or
• protect the rights and freedoms of other people.

Action is ‘proportionate’ when it is appropriate and no more than necessary to address the issue concerned. You may face a wider range of restrictions if you work for the armed forces, the police or the Civil Service.

In August 2010, the English Defence League (EDL) planned a protest in Bradford. A counter demonstration by Unite Against Fascism was also planned. Some local people wanted the protest banned and there were concerns about a repeat of the violent clashes that had happened at previous EDL events. West Yorkshire Police had a duty to protect the protest unless there was clear evidence that violence would occur. They examined the human rights aspect of the situation and talked to local people, in particular the Muslim community, about the right to peaceful protest. After this explanation the community realised that the police had to allow the protest. Community groups worked with the police to persuade young people not to get involved in criminal activity on the day.

Enforcement of human rights law

The European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR) protects the human rights of people in countries that belong to the Council of Europe.

Further Law preparartion (Human Rights)

• Role of domestic courts
• The process of judicial review
• The role of the european court of human rights

What is the Council of Europe? Formed in 1949, the Council of Europe is completely separate from the European Union and much larger, with 47 members compared to the EU’s 28. The UK became a Council member 24 years before it joined the EU. The UK’s membership of the Council would be unaffected if it left the EU.

What is judicial review? Judicial review is a procedure by which a person who has been affected by a particular decision, action or failure to act of a public authority may make an application to the High Court, which may provide a remedy if it decides that the authority has acted unlawfully.

The UK made these rights part of its domestic law through the Human Rights Act 1998.

The role of the Commission in judicial review The Commission has a power to institute judicial review proceedings in matters of relevance to its functions including where a public authority has breached the general equality duty.

There is a 3 month deadline for making an application for judicial review, from the date of the act or omission that is being challenged, although there is an obligation on the person wishing to make an application to act promptly.

If the court finds that the public authority has acted unlawfully, it, may:

• Issue a mandatory order (i.e. an order requiring the public body to do something)
• Issue a prohibiting order (i.e. an order preventing the public body from doing something)
• Issue a quashing order (i.e. an order quashing the public body's decision)
• Make a declaration award damages

A public authority may be acting unlawfully if it has made a decision or done something:

• Without the legal power to do so (unlawful on the grounds of illegality)
• So unreasonable that no reasonable decision-maker could have come to the same decision or done the same thing (unlawful on the grounds of reasonableness)
• Without observing the rules of natural justice (unlawful on the grounds of procedural impropriety or fairness)
• In breach of European Community Law or the Human Rights Act

MORality

Utilitarianism promotes "the greatest amount of good for the greatest number of people."

Further Law preparartion (NATURE OF LAW)

• 'uTILITARIANISM'
• THEORY OF jEREMY BENTHAM
• AREA OF LAW PREVIOUSLY STUDIED

1. Pleasure or Happiness Is the Only Thing That Truly Has Intrinsic Value.
2. Actions Are Right Insofar as They Promote Happiness, Wrong Insofar as They Produce Unhappiness.
3. Everyone's Happiness Counts Equally.

Utilitarianism is directed towards making social, economic, or political decisions, a utilitarian philosophy would aim for the betterment of society as a whole. Utilitarianism would say that an action is right if it results in the happiness of the greatest number of people in a society or a group.

Jeremy Bentham describes his "greatest happiness principle" in 'Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation', a 1789 publication in which he writes:

"Nature has placed mankind under the governance of two sovereign masters, pain and pleasure. It is for them alone to point out what we ought to do, as well as to determine what we shall do."

When used in a sociopolitical construct, utilitarian ethics aims for the betterment of society as a whole. Utilitarianism is a reason-based approach to determining right and wrong, but it has limitations.

Utilitarians have tried to apply Bentham's hedonistic calculus to Criminal Law. They assert that punishment is a form of government imposed pain. At the same time, utilitarians believe that criminals break the law only because they do not fully comprehend the confusing language of rights and obligations. Accordingly, utilitarians conclude that law must be stripped of such confusing terms and redrafted in language that equates socially undesirable conduct with pain and socially desirable conduct with pleasure.

The felicific calculus is an algorithm formulated by utilitarian philosopher Jeremy Bentham (1747–1832) for calculating the degree or amount of pleasure that a specific action is likely to induce. The felicific calculus could, determine the moral status of any considered act. The algorithm is also known as the utility calculus, the hedonistic calculus and the hedonic calculus.

The major themes which are present in Marx's own writing and in subsequent Marxist approaches to law are:

1. Law is inescapably political, or law is one forro of politics.
2. Law and state are closely connected; law exhibits a relative autonomy I'rom the state.
3. Law gives effect to, mirrors or is otherwise expressive of the prevailing economic relaltions.
4. Law is always potentially coercive and manifests the state's monopoly of the means of coercion.
5. The content and procedures oflaw manifest, directly or indirectly, the interests of the dominant class(es).
6. Law is ideological; it both exemplifies and provides legitimation to the embedded values of the dominant class(es).

JUSTICE

Further Law preparartion (NATURE OF LAW)

• KARL MARX
• 'FROM EACH ACCORDING TO HIS ABILITY, TO EACH ACCORDING TO HIS NEEDS.'
• RESEARCH LAW THAT FOLLOWS THIS PRINCIPLE

Slogan popularised by Karl Marx in his 1875 Critique of the Gotha Program.

Marx believed in the labor theory of value to explain relative differences in market prices. This theory stated that the value of a produced economic good can be measured objectively by the average number of labor hours required to produce it. When workers realize their exploitation, they will revolt and take over ownership of factories and materials (dictatorship of the proletariat)

Karl Heinrich Marx was a German philosopher, economist, historian, sociologist, political theorist, journalist and socialist revolutionary.

'To each according to his contribution was a concept espoused by many members of the socialist and labor movement.'

According to Marx's theory of historical materialism, societies pass through six stages:

1. primitive communism,
2. slave society,
3. feudalism,
4. capitalism,
5. socialism
6. and global stateless communism.

The term means simply that each worker in a socialist society receives compensation and benefits according to the quantity and value of the labor that he or she contributed.

SOCIETY

Further Law preparartion (NATURE OF LAW)

• RECENT RACIAL DISCRIMINATORY COMMENTS MADE ON SOCIAL MEDIA ABOUT THE THREE BLACK ENGLAND FOOTBALL PLAYERS
• SHOULD THE LAW BE A SOCIAL CONTROL MECHANISM?
• AND HOW SHOULD IT BE ENFORCED?

"Social media companies need to step up and take accountability and action to ban abusers from their platforms, gather evidence that can lead to prosecution and support making their platforms free from this type of abhorrent abuse." In February, the government threatened social media companies with "large fines" if they failed to tackle abuse on their platforms.

The FA said it was "appalled" by the "online racism" directed at the three players following the defeat at Wembley. It added: "We could not be clearer that anyone behind such disgusting behaviour is not welcome in following the team. " "We will do all we can to support the players affected while urging the toughest punishments possible for anyone responsible. " "We will continue to do everything we can to stamp discrimination out of the game, but we implore government to act quickly and bring in the appropriate legislation so this abuse has real life consequences."