Introduction to historical Science

Introduction to Historical Science

Epistemology What is it?

The study of knowledge

• What's knowledge?
• How do we know?

• How can we be sure that what we know is true?
• Do we know or do we only think we know?
• How do we approach reality?
• Does science needs to have a purpose?

For next class, make a summary about Plato's Allegory of the Cave (research a bit more if necessary). Upload it to Algebraix. No less than half a page and no more than one page.

Modernism and scientism

Situation in Context: ¡Alármala de Tos!

On a summer afternoon, Juan and Julieta were enjoying their vacations. They were walking through the streets of the historic center of the city of Puebla, when suddenly, the earth began to shake. First, gently; later, with violence. The tranquility of rest was left behind: an earthquake measuring 8.0 on the Richter scale shook the city. The consequences were devastating: in front of his eyes, a large house that was built in the 18th century collapsed; later, with a great crash, the dome of a church fell, endangering many people. Juliet remained static, panic seized her. Juan, on the contrary, as in his spare time he investigates natural phenomena, he recalled that he had read something about earthquakes and how to act in the event of a disaster caused by them. Juan looked for a place to take shelter, grabbed Julieta by the arm and they advanced towards that place. In the distance, the shouts, the sirens of the ambulance, the fire department and the police, sounded. Suddenly an explosion detonated somewhere in the city and dust began to cover the streets. Juan watched as two columns of smoke rose and he thought that it all seemed to be a scene from the video games that he used to play with his friends, but this was real.

Modernism and scientism

Division of Sciences acording to its subject of study

Natural and Social Phenomena

Brainstorm!

In two teams, make a collage with pictures representing Social and Natural phenomena in Canva or any other image editor and present it to the class.

Formal Sciences

1. Mathematics
2. Logic

Factic Sciences/Disciplines

Social Sciences

Natural Sciences

• Political Science
• Economy
• Sociology
• Antropology
• Law
• History

• Biology
• Geology
• Climatology
• Astronomy

Fields of Study and Methods

Why is there a need for a division of Social Sciences?

1. Field of Study
2. Method

Fields of Study and Methods

Why is there a need for a division of Social Sciences?

1. Field of Study
2. Method

Analyzing a Social Phenomenon

• Consider the phenomenon of migration of Central Americans towards the United States and analyze it from the perspective of the different areas of Social Sciences. With the information fill in the following table:

Lets analyze the Situation in Context again

Campaign for the Culture of Prevention

Design as a team, a Campaign for the Culture of Prevention and knowledge of the natural and social phenomena that can alter the harmonious life of society, using the following resources: painting, short films, songs, galleries, photographs, videos, Facebook, Instagram, Posters, Twitter, etc., based on the following form:a) Establish objectives b) Define the public to whom the campaign will be directed c) Select advertising media d) Design advertising message e) Launch campaign

The campaign will aim to promote the following criteria: a) Raise awareness about the importance of identifying natural and social phenomena that can alter the harmonious life of society, in their school and community. b) Highlight the importance of the culture of prevention of natural phenomena and social that can alter the harmonious life of society. c) Highlight the importance of interaction between people, institutions and organizations context to strengthen the culture of prevention.

Create a mental map describing the natural sciences, social sciences, and formal sciences. Write a brief summary in which you describe a point of agreement for these branches of scientific knowledge.

Process for the generation of knowledge

Proccess for the generation of knowledge

The effects of earthquakes: natural disasters?

The effects of earthquakes: natural disasters?

Basic concepts for the study of Social Phenomena

• Society
• Social Class
• Social Group
• Social Processes
• Social Practices

Basic concepts for the study of Social Phenomena - Example

• Society - Puebla City
• Social Class - Businessmen in Puebla City
• Social Group - Fans of the Puebla FC
• Social Processes - Long hair/dyed hair is slowly being accepted in schools
• Social Practices - Buying eggs by weight

• Society - Other Socierty
• Social Class - Businessmen in Puebla City
• Social Group - Fans of the Puebla FC
• Social Processes - Long hair/dyed hair is slowly being accepted in schools
• Social Practices - Buying eggs by weight

Assignment

Carry out an investigation on a contemporary social problem where you identify a social problem in its context, integrating:

• What is the problem you selected?
• How does it affect society?
• What disciplines could help to analyze it?
• How does each discipline contribute to the explanation of the social problem?
• And what possible solutions can they propose after the analysis?

Present the investigation in a word processor in a maximum of two pages.

Truth

Types of Knowledge

Types of knowledge according to the explanation the subject formulates

• Everyday or vulgar knowledge
• Mythical Knowledge
• Religious Knowledge
• Philosophical Knowledge
• Scientific Knowledge

Social Sciences and the challenges of the 21st century societies

• Multiculturalism and Sociology
• Terrorism and Law
• Pluralism and Political Science
• Globalization and Economy
• The end of the Cold War and History
• Fundamentalism and Anthropology

Assignment

Carry out an investigation on a contemporary social problem where you identify a social problem in its context, integrating:

• What is the problem you selected?
• How does it affect society?
• What disciplines could help to analyze it?
• How does each discipline contribute to the explanation of the social problem?
• And what possible solutions can they propose after the analysis?

Present the investigation in a word processor in a maximum of two pages.

Types of knowledge according to the way the subject approaches the object

• Empirical Knowledge
• Analitic Knowledge

Autorregulación

• ¿Quién soy?
• ¿De dónde vengo?,
• ¿Hacia dónde voy?
• ¿Cómo me encuentro? (ilusionado, aburrido, expectante, desorientado, explica por qué)

• ¿Se han cumplido los plazos?
• ¿He trabajado siguiendo los compromisos asumidos?
• ¿He aprendido cosas nuevas?

• ¿Cómo me siento con el trabajo realizado?
• El trabajo del grupo en su conjunto y de mis compañeros ¿Me ha dificultado o facilitado mi trabajo personal? ¿En qué aspectos?
• La actitud del profesor ¿Me ha facilitado o dificultado mi trabajo personal? ¿En qué aspectos?

2nd cut: "Cosmic Race"

In the high school where Quetzalli attends, they organized an excursion to Teotihuacán and the Templo Mayor in Mexico City in order to learn more about the cultures of Teotihuacana and Mexica. During the tour, Quet¬zalli was surprised by the majesties she saw, wondering how such ancient civilizations had been able to build all that? One of the guides told them about some endemic plants used by these cultures to alleviate diseases. Meztli, Quetzalli's partner, commented: "Now I understand why my mother always gives me chamomile (manzanilla) tea when my belly hurts." For her part, Malinalli added: "My grandmother does the same with bougainvillea, when we get the flu." While they made the tour of the ruins of Teotihuacán, Malinalli told them “I saw how a young man with an object was scratching a pillar of a temple and that a guide scolded him”. Quetzalli indignantly exclaimed: "What lack of respect for our archaeological sites!" When leaving there, Quetzalli and his friends bought obsidian crafts which represented Quetzálcoatl and Tlaloc to give them to their families. The next day, in history class, Quetzalli and his friends shared their experiences. They agreed on the extraordinary of the trip, which had unforgettable results and they definitely learned to value the pre-Hispanic peoples, especially the degree of sophistication of their culture, antiquity, wisdom and their ability to build cities. Meztli highlighted the persistence in our society of some elements from those cultures such as: medicinal plants, food and even some words of pre-Hispanic origin that we continue to use such as peanut, avocado, xoloitzcuintle or Popocatépetl. In the end, Quetzalli asked them a question which made all his colleagues reflect: Why, despite the enormous importance that these societies had, their creative capacity, their cultural contributions today are valued so little?

The Settlement of America

Three main theories:

• Monogenista
• Poligenista
• Autoctonista

Zones of México during the Protoneolytic (2500 bc)

1. Aridoamérica
2. Oasisamérica
3. Mesoamérica

City-State

Cultural Horizons of Mesoamerica

Preclassic Period (2500 ac - 200 dc)

• Early Preclassic (2500 ac - 1200 ac)
• Mid Preclassic (1200 ac - 400 ac)
• Late Preclassic (400 ac - 200 dc)

Classic Period (200 d.C - 900 d.C)

1. Early Classic (200-650 d.C)
2. Late Classic (650-900 d.C)
3. Epiclassic (650-1000 d.C)

Postclassic Period (900 d.C - 1521 d.C)

Cultures of the Classic Period

Mayan Culture

• The Mayan region experienced a boom in urbanism, society, religion, politics, science, art and economy during the Classic period. The Mayas were organized around different cities that established a complex relationship with each other, be it war, alliance or trade, or with those of Mayan-speaking groups and with those of other cultures, such as Teotihuacán.

Political Organization

• At present, we know that there were around 60 "kingdoms" inserted in these dynamics. Each major city was governed by a ruling lineage, which was to legitimize and control the other noble lineages. At the head of the society was the k'uhul ajaw, "divine lord", who had to guarantee the security of the kingdom, as well as its prosperity.
• However, the ruler had an extensive group of priests and specialists, who were in charge of religious worship and the management of the calendar. A group of nobles and people of distinguished lineage were in charge of administrative functions, the manufacture of luxury goods, and specialized functions, such as the creation of plastic works that legitimized the established order, writing, architecture, the management of the calendar among others.

Economic Organization

• The bulk of the population was made up of peasants and artisans who lived far from the city centers. The population used to organize themselves into groups that shared some economic specialty and a common ancestor, collectively administered their lands and jointly faced the payment of tributes, as well as the sending of men to war and public works.
• An intermediate group, the merchants, was in charge of supplying the goods that each city could not produce, as well as luxury items for the nobility. Depending on the region, the products traded ranged from honey and salt, to ceramics, feathers, and skins, among others.

Cultural Organization

1. The religion practiced by the Classic Maya was reflected in stelae, vessels, murals and temples. The gods were worshiped through offerings of food and blood from the self-sacrifice of the ruler, the priests, the people, but also from captives in battle that would be sacrificed to feed the gods.
2. Many of these deities have been identified as antecedents of those worshiped by the Postclassic and Colonial Mayas, such as Kawil, Chaac, Itzamná, the Batabes, as well as the specific deities of merchants, farmers, in addition to the old gods, female deities, etc.

Decline of Mayan Civilization

• At the end of the Classic period (at the end of the 9th century and the beginning of the 10th) great transformations took place that culminated in the so-called collapse of the Mayan world.
• Even when many sites were abandoned and writing on stone carved stelae, which included the so-called long count, was no longer practiced, the Mayan civilization continued to exist, reaching a great boom in the north of the Yucatan Peninsula.
• This collapse was caused by many factors, including wars, overpopulation and political and social changes that generated the migration of the peasant population, as well as the end of the systems that legitimized the ruling class, the latter reflected in the disuse of the calendrical long count, whose last date corresponds to the year of 909 DC.

Teotihuacan Culture

• The Teotihuacan culture reached a splendor and power never seen in Mesoamerica. Its influence was felt in most of the area and possibly in regions beyond, such as Aridoamérica.
• At its peak, the city of Teotihuacán may have housed a population of approximately 200,000 inhabitants, which made it one of the six largest cities in the world in its time.
• As if that were not enough, Teotihuacán had extraordinary planning, and was equipped with advanced hydraulic systems, sewerage and drainage, plazas, housing complexes organized in large neighborhoods, and imposing temples and administrative centers.
• The obsidian reservoirs and the clay that was present in the territory was of great importance for this culture. Thus, the Teotihuacanos took advantage of their obsidian and ceramics to trade with all of Mesoamerica.

Teotihuacan Political Organization

• Teotihuacán was a cosmopolitan city, with neighborhoods of people from Oaxaca, Veracruz and the Mayan area. The population was organized into groups that shared patrilineal kinship relationships, which were concentrated in the same housing complexes to carry out specialized and related economic activities, such as commerce, pottery or the manufacture of obsidian tools.
• The political organization of Teotihuacán continues to be an enigma to date, since no remains or representations of rulers have been found, although there have been anonymous priests and warriors.
• Different hypotheses have been raised about the Teotihuacan political organization: some group or lineage could have imposed itself on the others, the power could have been in a ruling caste of priests or warriors, and even a government with representatives of the various groups and neighborhoods .

Teotihuacan Religion

• Teotihuacan religiosity is embodied in its great temples, the largest of which is probably dedicated to some aquatic deity, as well as the sumptuous temple of the Feathered Serpent.

• This same city could have been a religious pilgrimage center, perhaps from times before the construction of the so-called Pyramid of the Sun, built on a cave modified by the hand of man.
• Among the deities present we see the gods of Rain and Fire, the goddess of Water, the aforementioned Feathered Serpent and a deity covered with a human skin that is probably the antecedent of the Nahua god Xipe Totec.

Zapoteca Culture

• The Zapotec culture finds its maximum degree of splendor in the city of Monte Albán. Located in the Valley of Oaxaca, it was built on a hill at the confluence of the three central valleys.
• Due to its location in a strategic point and difficult to access, as well as its dimensions, Monte Albán had a predominant role over the entire region, centralizing political, religious and economic power over several cities that repeated the same centralizing scheme in their respective areas of influence.
• Monte Albán established close contact with Teotihuacán, evidenced by the presence of Zapotecs in that great city, as well as by the archaeological finds that show the commercial contacts between both cities.

Zapoteca Culture

• After the fall of the metropolis of central Mexico, Monte Albán had a great flourishing, reflected in the city in monumental constructions of the time known as Phase Xoo.
• The ruling class of Monte Albán lived in opulence in the highest part of the city, in the best and largest constructions, and arranged their deceased in elegant tombs adorned with fine mural paintings, where the remains and rich offerings were placed.
• The rest of the population lived distributed in neighborhoods located on terraces of different sizes, built in the mountains or along the valley, where they dedicated themselves to agriculture and artisan production.
• There is evidence of the worship of various gods, among which are Pitao Cocijo, god of rain, Pitao Cozobi, god of corn, as well as a god of earthquakes, among many others.

The Mexicas before the arrival of Cortéz

The Calpullis

1. These groups communally owned the land, dispensed their own justice, and cooperated in paying tributes, public works, warfare, and protecting their members. Also, in cases of need, they could migrate together to found a new town or join an already established one. The ruling class had to negotiate or submit the interests of the calpulis to impose state control over them.
2. The creation of new States also saw the creation of a new category of merchants. These merchants could serve as spies for their governments, while supplying luxury goods to the nobility. Trade spanned great distances that connected all of Mesoamerica and its different ecological niches, either by land or by coastal navigation through seas and rivers.

Tributes and religious celebrations

1. The imposition of tribute became one of the main sources of wealth for the most powerful states, by subduing, through war or threats, the weakest peoples to force them to hand over the resources of their region.
2. The religious cult was directed by the State. Every twenty days a particular festival was celebrated in honor of a particular god or gods. To successfully carry out these festivities, schools such as the telpochcalli (youth house), the Calmécac or the cuicacalli were established in large cities, which prepared the population in the appropriate songs, dances, music and rituals.
3. The calpullis also had their local festivals and played a preponderant role in state celebrations, either because they were their patron god, or because of their specialty.

1. Telpochcalli: Practical School
2. Cuicacalii: Arts School
3. Calmecac: Noble School

The religious practices of Postclassic cultures

1. During the Postclassic, new religious dynamics emerged, as well as plastic and architectural manifestations that reflect them.
2. Perhaps the one that attracts the most attention is that of human sacrifice.
3. All these changes come from the hand of a new ideology known as Toltec or Zuyuana, named after the places that between the Mexica and the Maya were known as sites of origin and legitimacy (Tula and Zuyúa).
4. According to the belief of various groups, a caudillo, identified with Quetzalcóatl, had left that place to conquer other peoples, as well as to teach new cultural practices. The rulers said they descended from said caudillo and had to go to Tula to obtain the attributes that legitimized him in power.

The religious practices of Postclassic cultures

1. Religiosity was marked by the presence of multiple gods, as well as calendars, both annual and ritual, so religious festivals were frequent, in which offerings, dances, songs and, sometimes, human sacrifices were made.
2. During these festivals, the creation of something (of the world, of corn, of the people) was celebrated, which updated the event so that it "happened" again.
3. In addition to the temples, the religious cult had its main settings in the mountains, the crossroads and the caves, as they were points of union between the human world and the world of the gods.
4. It was necessary to keep the gods happy so that they did not abandon the population and unleash their wrath. If they were kept happy, the people would lack nothing and they would be rewarded with victory in the military field and abundance in the economic sphere.

The Central Role of War and Sacrifice for the Mexicas

1. To understand the role of war and sacrifice among the Mexica it is necessary to understand what life and death implied for them.
2. In the Mesoamerican world it was believed that everything that existed had been made by the gods: the world, the sun, water, life. To do so, the gods died to transform themselves into some entity, whether it was earth, corn, or stones.
3. Death was not an end, but an indispensable requirement for life to exist, thanks to the cyclical movement that was generated.
4. The blood and life of humanity fed the gods, allowed transformation, and provided the energy necessary for the divinities and the cosmos to keep the life cycle going.
5. However, the daily death of beings was not enough for the cosmos to run its course: some deities required the sacrifice of humanity or other living beings to give their gifts or to stay strong and be able to fulfill their tasks.

The Central Role of War and Sacrifice for the Mexicas

1. The sun was one of the beings that demanded this. Tonatiuh, the Sun, was in charge of keeping the universe in a stable movement and that the gods could not transform or do what they wanted during the day.
2. Tonatiuh thus required the sacrifice of humanity, but not that of any person, but that of warriors, those individuals who had made merits and sacrifices and had pleased the gods.
3. Thus, war was necessary. The Mexica integrated into their social structures the belief of feeding the gods that, in addition, gave them a justification to undertake their conquests and wars against the rest of the Mesoamerican peoples, particularly against those who did not submit.

The Central Role of War and Sacrifice for the Mexicas

1. To gain the rank of tlahtoani or tecuhtli (nobles with positions of command) one had to take prisoners in battle. This allowed for some social mobility by elevating to the rank of tecuhtli warriors from the lower strata of society who had captured prisoners.
2. Likewise, nobles who did not earn merit could not access the highest positions of the State and, even, could lose their privileges and quality of nobility.
3. When some natural catastrophe occurred, it was a sign that the gods were not satisfied, so it was necessary to feed them, which in turn required sacrificial victims. Since the gods preferred warriors, it was best to resort to war.
4. Thus, what became known as the florid war was instituted, which was done not to extend dominion or conquer tributary towns, but mainly to capture prisoners

Topics to be seen in the Test

• Main Characteristics of the Mayan Culture
• Toltecas and their influence (Winged serpente Gods)
• Types of schools in the Postclassic period
• Death for the Postclassic civilizations
• War, Economy and Religion for the Mexicas

• Theories for the settlement of America
• Mesoamerica, Oasisamerica and Aridoamerica main characteristics and locations
• Cultural Horizons
• Main characteristics of the Preclassic/Classic/Postclassic period and main civilizations in each one.

3rd Cut

The Spanish conquest and the Colony: the stablishment of a new social, political and cultural order

Changes the spanish brought to México: The Viceroyalty and the Colony

1. Language and Religion
2. Destruction of ancient cities and ceremonial centers and construction of convents and churches over the ruins
3. Unkown diseases
4. Pillage of raw materials
5. New agricultural instrument and techniques
6. Introduction of cattle
7. Syncretism (Sincretismo)

Answer the following questions

1. What elements of pre-Hispanic origin do you identify in your community? Which ones are of Colonial origin?

1. What elements of your state are emblematic to you and which are of Prehispanic origin and which ones are of Colonial origin?

1. What social and cultural transformations did the pre-Hispanic communities have with the arrival of the Spanish?
2. What is your opinion regarding syncretism (union of pre-Hispanic elements and Spanish) that characterizes contemporary Mexican culture?
3. Do you think that pre-Hispanic culture was enriched or destroyed with the arrival of the Spanish?

Political and cultural characteristics of the Spanish Monarchy in the XV century

1. Fall of Constantinople/End of the Middle Ages (1453)
1. Seeking of new trade routes with the Far East

1. Spanish Reconquest (1492)
2. Protestant Reformation and the Counter Reformation (1517)

Class Activity

• Read the article "The European expansion of the XIV-XVI centuries and the conquest of Mexico" and consult other documentary sources and answer the following questions:

Class Activity

• What were the reasons for the Spanish-Portuguese conflict during the 15th century?
• How did the expansionist policies of Spain and Portugal influence the discovery of America?
• What advances in shipbuilding allowed transatlantic voyages?
• What navigational instruments allowed transatlantic voyages?
• How important were expansionist wishes for the discovery of America?
• What role did the papacy play in the conflict?
• What Spanish cultural period was the conflict between Spain and Portugal framed?
• Through what treaty was the division of the territory of the American continent between Spain and Portugal determined? With the information, create a mental map where you explain the political and cultural characteristics of the Hispanic monarchy.

Beginning of the colonial era in Mexico: 3 Exploration trips departing from Cuba

• 1st.- 1517-Francisco Hernández de Córdoba arrives in Yucatán: First Contact between the European and Mesoamerican worlds
• 3rd.- 1519 - Hernan Cortés broke away from the Cuban branch in 1519 by founding a town –Veracruz– and erecting a council (town council or local government body according to the Castilian tradition). Thus he was able to justify and autonomously organize his incursion into the interior. The advance, which had some military episodes, reached its climax with the entry of the Spanish into Tenochtitlan Mexico at the end of that same year. To achieve his goals, Cortés used various political maneuvers, and especially an alliance that he entered into with the Tlaxcalan lordships.

Reasons for Cortés' victory over Tenochtitlán

1. Political alliances
2. Taking advantage of religiosity and ignorance
3. Diseases

Cortes' first arrival in Tenochtitlan

1. Cortés arrived in Mexico City-Tenochtitlán on November 8, 1519. The conquerors entered the Iztapalapa road where they were received by Moctezuma.
2. In his Letters of Relationship, Cortés compared Tenochtitlán city with the cities of Córdoba and Seville.
3. Taking as a pretext the death of the head of the Spanish a garrison in Villa Rica de la Veracruz and seven of his soldiers at the hands of a group of Mexican warriors, Cortés decided to take Moctezuma hostage, and transferred him to the same building where the Spaniards were protected.
4. At the request of Cortés, human sacrifices were forbidden and the inhabitants of Tenochtitlán were exhorted to abandon their gods. To the amazement of the Mexican priests and nobles, the Spanish destroyed the idols and imposed Christian images on the ceremonial centers. A mass was even held in the Templo Mayor.
5. All these acts increased the feeling of repudiation of the Mexica population, which, disconcerted by the emperor's passivity, tried to rise up without success.

1. In the midst of this climate of tension, Cortés was forced to leave the city of Tenochtitlán to face the army of Pánfilo de Narváez, who had been sent by Diego de Velázquez, in command of 19 ships and 1,400 men, with the objective of capturing him dead or alive.
2. In the absence of Cortés, Pedro de Alvarado, who had been left in charge of the Spanish garrison at Tenochtitlán, made the mistake that finally ignited the seed of rebellion among the Mexica.
3. In full celebration of the festival to Tezcatlipoca, in which the nobles gathered in the Plaza del Templo Mayor wearing luxurious gold and feather ornaments, Pedro de Alvarado and his men, driven by greed, ambushed the participants to assassinate them and strip them of their wealth.
4. The massacre at the Templo Mayor, as this cruel episode was known, unleashed the fury of the Mexica people, who chased the invaders to the doors of the Axayacatl palace, where they were forced to take shelter.

La Noche Triste (ª)

1. Aware of the situation, Cortés returned to Tenochtitlán to join the rest of his men. As part of the siege, the Mexica had cut off the supply of water and food to the Spanish barracks. Desperate because of the lack of food, the invaders released Moctezma's brother, Prince Cuitláhuac, to negotiate with the rebels.
2. However, as soon as he was free, Cuitláhuac (the next in line of succesion) joined the warriors led by the Tlatelolca prince, Cuauhtémoc. At some point during the contest, Cortés asked Moctezuma to come out to the roof of the palace to placate his subjects.
3. The emperor was greeted with stones and arrows by the crowd, and was removed with serious injuries. Days later, Moctezuma allegedly died from injuries inflicted by his own people.

1. The conquerors failed several times when trying to break the siege of the Mexica. For this reason, they decided to quietly leave the city on the night of June 30, 1520.
2. Loaded with gold from the Axayacatl treasure, about 1,300 Spaniards and more than 6,000 Allied warriors advanced along the Tacuba causeway, where they were surprised by the Mexica warriors.
3. This confrontation is popularly known as the Sad Night (Noche Triste), since more than half of the Spanish army (~450), 2 000 allied warriors and 45 horses died.
4. Legend has it that when Cortés reached the shore of the lake and saw the remains of his troops arrive, he could not contain the tears.
5. The Spanish army, badly wounded and defeated, had to fight yet another battle, the Battle of Otumba, before arriving in Tlaxcala territory. From there they began to prepare to regain control of Tenochtitlán.

Siege and conquest of Tenochtitlán

1. As part of the preparations to recover Tenochtitlán, the Spanish subdued the populations that were allies of the Mexica, and sealed alliances with the peoples that had historically been subjugated by them.
2. Their plan was to create a circle around the Valley of Mexico, in order to isolate the Mexica and cut off the flow of supplies from the city.
3. To carry out the attack, both by land and by water, Cortés had wood cut from the forests of Tlaxcala. With it, in the vicinity of Lake Texcoco, thirteen brigs were built. At that time, Cortés's army consisted of 513 soldiers, 90 horsemen, more than 45,000 Tlaxcalans, and 30,000 allies from Cholula, Huejotzingo, and Chalco.

Smallpox

1. Meanwhile, the smallpox (viruela) virus, introduced to the American continent by a black slave under the orders of Pánfilo de Narváez, was wreaking havoc on the population of Tenochtitlán.
2. The immune system of Native Americans, having had no previous contact with this disease, offered very little resistance to the advance of the disease.
3. One of the victims of this epidemic was Prince Cuitláhuac, who was succeeded in command by his relative Cuauhtémoc. The latter, together with Cacamac, lord of Texcoco, undertook the task of reorganizing the Mexica army and preparing the defense of the city.
4. The siege of Tenochtitlán lasted 93 days, during which there was no truce in the combat for land and water.

The Fall

1. The Mexicas bravely defended their city, but finally, on August 13, 1521, they were overcome by hunger, thirst and the tenacity of the invading army.
2. The fall of Tenochtitlán meant not only the collapse of the Mexica Empire, but that of the pre-Hispanic world in general.
3. In the course of the following years, the Spanish expanded their dominance over other regions, imposing their culture, religion, forms of organization and life. Ultimately, the territories occupied by the Mesoamerican peoples were united around a political entity, New Spain.

The aftermath

1. A relevant aspect that should be noted is that the Conquest of America was more than a simple process of annexing new territories to the domain of the Spanish Crown.
2. The notion of spiritual conquest refers precisely to the religious dimension of the territorial expansion process, since one of its main motivations and justifications was the incorporation of indigenous populations into the Christian world of the West.
3. This fact, rather than a result of the occupation process, should be considered as a condition of it, insofar as it constituted the basis on which the European imperial expansion was legitimized.

Exercise

1. What feeling does reading this poem written by indigenous hands arouse in you just a few years after the fall of Tenochtitlán?
2. Which fragment caught your attention the most? Why?
3. What must the process of conquest have implied for indigenous cultures?

The process of colonization

Territorial Expansionism

1. From 1521 Cortés and his captains set out to conquer new territories. Most of this process occurred peacefully, although in some areas the Spanish were forced to fight to subdue the local indigenous population, who resisted their rule.
2. For example, although the peoples of Michoacán did not offer any resistance to the Spanish occupation, in some regions, such as the Yucatán peninsula, pacification took many years to achieve.
3. The same happened in the northern region, where the Chichimecan peoples could not be subdued until the nineteenth century.
4. The looting, murder, torture and mistreatment to which some indigenous peoples were subjected by the conquerors led to regional uprisings, such was the case of the so-called Mixtón war, which put the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia in check in western Mexico.

Territorial Expansionism

1. It was not uncommon, during this period, that due to indigenous uprisings, the Spanish lost the territory they had previously conquered.
2. This was the case of settlements located mainly in the northern region, which were to be definitively colonized until the 18th century.
3. In total, the process of consolidation of the territory of New Spain lasted almost three centuries. In the end, its territory covered an area of ​​more than four million square kilometers and stretched from Alta California to Belize.

Evangelization

1. The conversion of the indigenous population to Christianity was one of the priorities of the Spanish Crown. Still encouraged by the spirit of the Reconquest, which had led it to expel the infidels from the Iberian Peninsula, the Spanish monarchy found in the evangelization of the indigenous population a justification for its expansionist efforts.
2. The first evangelizers not only took on the task of baptizing the native population, they also dedicated themselves to their alfabetization and training in arts and jobs.
3. It is worth noting that the establishment of missions by these religious orders played a fundamental role, especially in the colonization of inhospitable regions such as those of northern Mexico.

Franciscan Order

1. The first religious who arrived in Mexico with the explicit objective of evangelizing all the peoples that had just been conquered were the Franciscan friars Juan de Tecto, Juan de Ayora and Pedro de Gante, who set foot on American territory in the year of 1523, to later settle in the city of Texcoco, where Pedro de Gante founded the first school in America.
2. The religious adherence to the Franciscan rule that prescribed penance and poverty filled the indigenous population with surprise, accustomed to violence and mistreatment by the Spanish.
3. The Franciscans were known in America for their tireless evangelical and educational work. The zeal of the friars belonging to this order led them to study the languages ​​of the natives and write texts in their own language.

Dominican Order

1. The Dominican friars, for their part, arrived in America in 1524, led by Brother Tomás Ortiz. Among the main religious of this order, the following stand out:
2. Fray Julián de Garcés, bishop of Tlaxcala and first bishop of New Spain, who defended the indigenous people in the controversy that was generated regarding the questioning of their rationality.
3. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas, bishop of Chiapas, who was granted the appointment of attorney or universal protector of all Indians in Hispanic lands.
4. The Dominicans were known for defending, both theologically and politically, the thesis of humanity and rationality of the indigenous people. Thanks to their interventions, Pope Paul III promulgated the bull Sublimis Deus in 1537, which prohibited the slavery of the Indians and granted them the right to property, as well as the right to embrace the Christian faith, which should be preached to them without cruelty and in a peaceful way.

Agustinian Order

1. The Augustinian friars arrived in Veracruz in 1533, led by Fray Francisco de la Cruz. The Augustinians built convents, schools, churches, and libraries, as well as imposing irrigation works.
2. The work of Fray Alonso de la Vera Cruz stands out, who in addition to founding the first library in America, built the Real Colegio de San Nicolás de Obispo, in Michoacán where he had King Caltzontzin's son as a student.

Jesuit Order

1. The Jesuits arrived in Mexico at the end of the 16th century with the mission of evangelizing and educating the indigenous people, as well as supporting the colonization of northern Mexico through the establishment of missions in the territories of Sonora, Sinaloa, Arizona, and Baja California.
2. The work of the priest Eusebio Francisco Kino, better known as Father Kino, who founded more than twenty missions in northwestern Mexico and the southwestern United States, is exemplary in this regard.

Religious Syncretism

1. Most indigenous peoples, accustomed to worshiping multiple deities, had little trouble accepting Christian baptism and incorporating one more deity into their pantheon. However, they showed great resistance to the abandonment of their gods.
2. Scandalized by the rites and beliefs of the indigenous people, the first evangelizers sought to eradicate their objects of worship and their sacred places. The ceremonial centers were demolished and churches and convents were built in their place.
3. As evangelizers learned the native languages ​​and became familiar with their worldview and culture, a trend that sought to assimilate indigenous beliefs to Christian religious forms gained strength.
4. In this way, a kind of syncretism took place from which indigenous elements were incorporated into the religion imposed by the conquerors. The patron saint festivals, the worship of the saints, the ornaments of the churches, and even the architecture of the temples, are an example of the religious mixture of both cultures that prevails to this day.

Urban development of New Spain

• The urban development of the Viceroyalty of New Spain was one of the factors that strengthened the internal economy and helped in achieving economic maturity. The constant urban modernization favored the organization of internal commercial networks.
• URBANIZATION PLAN
• After the conquest, both the Spanish Crown and the Catholic Church carried out an urbanization plan for the inhabitants of the territory in order to facilitate the evangelizing mission. The efforts paid off and gradually the population was drawn to the new urban centers.

Urban development of New Spain

1. Likewise, the economic growth derived from mining and agricultural exploitation made urban centers attractive and these began to be erected due to the constant increase in population.
2. In the execution of this plan, the missionaries or friars had a fundamental task, not only as contractors of indigenous labor destined to produce the works, but also as territorial organizers who distributed the spaces and gave it a characteristic imprint that ended up defining an own architectural style.

CONSOLIDATION OF CITIES

• Throughout the seventeenth century, the cities became the social, political, financial and religious centers of the Viceroyalty of New Spain and became the rulers of the social, political and economic life of all the inhabitants. Over time cities became centers of cultural activity.

• The most important city was Mexico City, where large-scale trade was carried out and exports were organized. Here the great merchandise arrived that later were distributed to the rest of the territory.
• However, other cities also achieved great urban development such as Puebla de los Ángeles, Mérida, Oaxaca, Valladolid (which currently corresponds to Morelia) or Guadalajara. Some mining cities declined over the centuries but thanks to the economic boom of the seventeenth century they re-emerged, examples of which are Zacatecas and Guanajuato.

THE RELEVANCE OF TRADE

1. Commercial activity was essential in all cities. In them, internal commercial networks were generated between merchants and the different areas of the viceroyalty, which favored communication between the territories.
2. In the small towns, local merchants depended on supplies from other more established merchants, the latter being in charge of moving goods from one place to another.
3. Despite this permanent interconnection between the territories and the economic liberalism that broke out in the 18th century, trade, however, was characterized by always having a centralist character, with Mexico City being the organizing and distributor center of the goods of the Viceroyalty.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CITIES

1. The peninsulars planned their cities on valleys since there they could reproduce the form of a grid or checkerboard, which was a rational style of space distribution, exported from Europe.
2. At the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century, a variation was made to the religious character of the cities and new spaces were created for recreational and leisure purposes such as theaters and markets, among which the Parian built in 1801 stands out.
3. The cities were growing and modernizing according to the economic growth of the viceroyalty and this was reflected in the paving of streets, public lighting with oil lanterns turned on and off by the serene, vigilance and other characteristics that reflected the economic boom experienced in the territory.

Activity: location of important colonial cities and main characteristics

1. Locate the colonial cities in the following links in a map:
1. https://www.debate.com.mx/viajes/Cuales-son-las-ciudades-coloniales-de-Mexico-20160706-0119.html
2. http://viajes.elmundo.es/2015/08/07/america/1438943r468.html
2. Write in a text document the main characteristics of each city.

Political and social organization in the New Spain

1. The highest political authority over the territory of New Spain during the colonial period was the Spanish Crown, embodied in the figure of the king.
2. During the three centuries that the Colony lasted, eleven monarchs ruled, belonging to two royal houses. From the house of Austria or Habsburg: Carlos I of Spain and V of Germany, Felipe II, Felipe III, Felipe IV and Carlos II. From the house of Bourbon: Felipe V, Luis I, Fernando VI, Carlos II and Fernando VII.
3. The first metropolitan institutions created to deal with political, legal and commercial problems in America were the Junta de Burgos -whose ordinances regulated relations with indigenous peoples- and the Aduana de Cádiz, which was in charge of commercial issues.
4. However, as the relationship with the territories became more complex, it was necessary to establish institutions with greater attributes and scope.

Political and social organization

1. In this way, in 1524, the Consejo de Indias was established, an administrative body that advised the king in his executive, legislative and judicial functions. The Council of the Indies attended to everything related to the administration and government of New Spain, from the appointment of civil authorities to the elaboration of regulations and laws in force in the new territories.
2. In order to control commercial exchanges between Spain and its possessions in America, the Casa de Contratación de Sevilla was created in 1503, an institution that monopolized traffic between the two continents.
3. Any person or freight (fletes) sent to American territory required a permit granted by this institution. Likewise, all merchandise from the Indies had to go through the control of the House of Seville and pay a tax to the Crown. Although both institutions disappeared in the course of the 18th century, they were extremely important during the first years of the Colony, above all to guarantee the king's authority and regulate relations between the metropolis and its possessions.

Political Organization of the New Spain

As far as the political organization of New Spain is concerned, several stages can be distinguished:

1. 1521 to 1527
2. 1528 to 1535
3. 1535 to 1821

Other organizations

1. Republica de Indios
2. Santo Oficio o Inquisición

Economy in the New Spain

1. New Spain was a territory rich in natural resources, and the labor of the indigenous people was also greatly exploited. The first conquerors seized the wealth of the local rulers and demanded the payment of tribute from the settlers.
2. Subsequently, motivated by the abundance of land, forests, flora and fauna, as well as precious minerals, new expeditions were undertaken, to which were added contingents of settlers who sought to settle in the conquered territories with the aim of undertaking some activity. economy that would allow them to get rich.
3. The main institutions from which work was distributed and organized in New Spain during the first years of the viceroyalty were the encomiendas, haciendas and repartimientos.

Economy in the New Spain

1. Agriculture
2. Cattle Raising
3. Mining
4. Industry
5. Commerce and Commercial Routes
1. Interior Trade
2. Foreign Trade

Daily life during the Viceroyalty (festivities, music, processions, customs, etc.)

1. Syncretism
2. Mixing
3. Culture