US Territorial Expansion

USA 1803 - 1890s US Territorial Expansion

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Objectives

In the 1830s, a young French aristocrat, Alexis de Tocqueville, decided to travel to the USA to observe the development of this nation in the making. De Tocqueville was a fervent supporter of liberties, he once wrote "I have a passionate love for liberty, law, and respect for rights". By going to the USA, he wanted to understand the reasons for the growing reputation of the New World as a land of freedom and opportunity.The collection of his observations, entitled Democracy in America, comes to the conclusion that, from its inception, the USA benefited from an exceptional context of development, which implanted an indelible sense of freedom in the hearts of the population and led to the establishment and development of the equivalent of individual freedom in politics, that is to say democracy. Indeed, he wrote "The democratic principle has gained so much strength by time, by events, and by legislation, as to have become not only predominant, but all-powerful. No family or corporate authority can be perceived; very often one cannot even discover in it any very lasting individual influence. The position of the Americans is therefore quite exceptional." In this presentation, we will therefore wonder : What are the roots of this sense of exceptionalism? Was there really something in the creation of the country which, from the start, made it special in terms of the perception of freedom? Is the USA really the land of the free?

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Objectives

Time 4

1 : An Exceptional Territory

2 : The Driving Forces behind Expansion

3 : The Paradox of US Democracy

4 : The Influence of the frontier on the National Character

To Go Further

Glossary

Timeline

Famous figures

The Louisiana Purchase

1 : An Exceptional Territory

The Lewis and Clark Expedition

To start, we will focus on the land itself, in its geographical sense. Indeed, some say it is the abundance of available land which differentiated the USA from the other democracies in the making : To what extent did the presence of virgin land contribute to the building of an exceptional national character?

The Wilderness and its Perception

The Frontier

1 : An exceptional Territory : the Louisiana Purchase

At the beginning of the 19th century, only a fraction of the land of what we now call the USA was populated by white settlers. The rest was considered as virgin land (even if Native American tribes lived on it), and the government of the USA quickly saw the potential for expansion they offered and managed to claim it : in 1803, an immense portion of land called Louisiana (far bigger than what we call Louisiana today) was sold at a ridiculously low price to the USA by Napoleon, whose attention was consumed by wars in Europe, and who took no interest in this territory. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States and opened up the possibility for westward expansion : there was now an immense territory to explore and be settled.

Map representing the extent of ''Louisiana''.

1 : An exceptional Territory : the Lewis and Clark Expedition

In order to explore and map this new territory, President Thomas Jefferson authorized a westward expedition led by US Army volunteers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. Their expedition lasted from 1803 to 1806 and was aided tremendously by the help of a Native American woman, Sacagawea, who served as their guide. Without Sacagawea’s immense knowledge of the land and the Indian tribes that inhabited it, Lewis and Clark’s expedition could easily have met with disaster, but they managed to cross the entire continent, proving once and for all that this vast territory was accessible and available, and opening up new horizons.

Map of the expedition. Click to enlarge

Statue of Sacagawea standing in Washington, D.C., in the U.S. Capitol Visitor Center. Click to enlarge

1 : An exceptional Territory : the Wilderness and its Perception

When explorers and settlers moved westwards, they entered a territory which had not been modified by human activity. This environment was given many names : uncharted territory, terra incognita, the unknown... but the one you should remember is the wilderness - a word summoning up the notions of raw natural power, grandiosity and hostility. The temptation to go west and cross this hostile environment to settle elsewhere was therefore a combination of these mixed feelings : fascination, fear and deep respect for nature.Some artists tried, later, to represent the feeling of coming into contact with such majestic natural forces : this artistic movement is called the Sublime. Here are a few examples of paintings trying to represent the Sublime : something so immense it cannot be fully encompassed, and which inspires feelings of deep veneration and awe. Click to enlarge.

1 : An exceptional Territory : the Frontier

Nowadays, countries are separated by borders. The term ''frontier'' is different, more conceptual than geographical : in American history, it refers to the line between civilized and uncivilized regions : the contact zone between the known and the unknown, civilisation and the wilderness, culture and nature. The existence of the frontier was therefore a sign that free land was still available, that there was, somewhere west, new territory to discover. Technically, the frontier was calculated on population density : the boundary at which population density falls below two people per square mile. And since new settlers constantly left for the west, the frontier was a moving line : Here is a series of maps from the Statistical Atlas of the USA showing population density over time, from 1790 to 1860 : you can clearly see the gradual increase in population density : people moved westward, and the frontier was constantly pushed further west.

Series of maps representing the evolution of the density of population. Click to enlarge.

Property

2 : The Driving Forces behind Expansion

Personal Greed

Now that we have established the existence of an abundance of free land and the fascination it exerted on the population, let's focus on the reasons behind westward expansion : what drove hundreds of thousands of people to start from scratch and try their luck in hostile regions :

National Economic Development

Ideological Reasons

Political Freedom

2 : Driving Forces : Property

The first reason for expansion is undoubtedly the liberty offered by the possibility to start a new life on unoccupied land. The growing reputation of the USA as a safe haven for immigrants and a land of opportunity for those willing to work hard drew people like a magnet : after the first Europeans, who for most came from the British Isles, a second wave of immigrants landed in America. They came primarily from Ireland and Germany, and as you can see on the chart, their number increased exponentially. The reputation of the USA as the land of opportunity, what was to be called later the American Dream, was reinforced when the government passed in 1862 the Homestead Act : this piece of legislation offered all Americans (and all those who wanted to become US citizens) 160 acres of public land (the equivalent of about 100 football fields) at a ridiculous price. This act, considered one of the United States’ most important pieces of legislation, encouraged expansion and allowed citizens from all backgrounds—including former slaves, women and immigrants—to become landowners.

Immigration statistics. You can clearly see the second wave, from Ireland and Germany. Click to enlarge.

Stamp celebrating the Homestead Act. Click to enlarge.

2 : Driving Forces : Personal Greed

Territorial expansion accelerated when gold was discovered in California in 1848 : approximately 300,000 people rushed there, from the rest of the United States and abroad. Those gold-diggers were nicknamed the forty-niners, after the peak year of the gold rush, 1849. The effects of such a sudden migration were substantial : the economy was reinvigorated, the population increased on the West Coast where new states, such as the State of California, were created, and indigenous populations were displaced. Once again, as with land ownership, individualistic motives were one of the driving forces behind expansion.

Ad encouraging people to buy a boat ticket to California to join the Gold Rush

2 : Driving Forces : National Economic Development

The desire to spread civilisation and its economic system, capitalism, was best exemplified with the building of the Transcontinental Railroad. In the 1860s, two railroad companies competed to build two sets of tracks in converging directions : the Central Pacific Railroad Company started building eastward from the West Coast, while the Union Pacific Railroad built westward from the Missouri River. This project was, however, not just a matter of private enterprise : These companies were largely funded by the government, which granted them land and subsidies to encourage the project. The junction was finally made in 1869 : from then on, you could take the train from the East to the West Coast. The building of the transcontinental railroad opened up the American West to more rapid development. Connecting the two American coasts made the economic export of Western resources to Eastern markets easier than ever before. The railroad also facilitated westward expansion, escalating conflicts between Native American tribes and settlers who now had easier access to new territories.

Map showing the Transcontinental Railroad. Click to enlarge.

2 : Driving Forces : Ideology

Any set of policies and behaviours needs self-justification. A civilisation cannot find the energy to conquer a whole territory without a narrative to legitimate it. America's westward expansion was justified by a belief nicknamed Manifest Destiny : the idea that the United States is destined—by God, its advocates believed—to spread democracy and capitalism across the entire North American continent. The phrase ''Manifest Destiny'' was coined by a journalist in 1845, but this quote from a letter written by John Quincy Adams, president from 1825 to 1829, shows that the belief was already entrenched at the beginning of the 19th century : ''The whole continent of North America appears to be destined by Divine Providence to be peopled by one nation, speaking one language, professing one general system of religious and political principles, and accustomed to one general tenor of social usages and customs.''

Painting by John Gast often considered as an allegory of Manifest Destiny. Click to enlarge.

2 : Driving Forces : Political Freedom

According to the influential historian Frederick Jackson Turner, the presence of the frontier profoundly shaped American culture. One of its most important features was its effect on the perception of freedom and democracy : Turner puts forward the argument that by providing the possibility of settling elsewhere, the existence of the frontier acted as a safety valve for the American society : any citizen unhappy with the system he lived in (not only in other countries but also in the civilised parts of the USA itself), had the opportunity to leave and start a new life far from the existing political institutions. He could use this ''blank page'', in the form of available free land, to recreate the process of independence and build a new community far from an unsatisfactory model of society. Of course it was not absolute political independence, they were still citizens of the USA, but with such geographical and ideological distance, the first settlers definitely developed a sense of political freedom and individualism rather than a sense of belonging to a nation.

F.J.Turner's book. Click to read an extract.

3 : The Paradox of US Democracy

Expanding Democracy

The sense of freedom granted by the existence of virgin land was connected to a desire for true democracy. Democracy is indeed the political counterpart of individual freedom : you cannot feel entirely free if you don't have a say in the way power is distributed. Here are a few elements to show that the frontier played a key role in the development of democracy in the USA, but that this role was from the start based on an inherent contradiction.

The Exclusion of Non-Whites

Unlimited Expansion in a Limited World

3 : Paradox of US Democracy : Expansion of Democracy

During its first decades of existence, the USA started to develop as an oligarchy : power and wealth were being concentrated in the institutions of the East Coast, in the hands of an elite based, not on nobility as in Europe, but on wealth. The Industrial Revolution and the rise of capitalism increased inequalities and a growing portion of the population felt deprived of power and opportunities. In addition to that, the fact that voting was in many states subject to property qualification, as in Britain, deprived the poor of their political power : for many, the USA was repeating the mistakes of the Old World. Andrew Jackson, who was elected in 1828, was different from the previous presidents : The first six Presidents were from the same mold : wealthy, educated, and from the east - in brief, members of the elite. Jackson, on the contrary, was a self-made man born in poverty in a rural state. He was elected because he claimed to represent the common man and denounced the growing influence of a corrupt elite. When in power, he took measures to make sure the people, and not just the wealthy, would get political power : he worked hard to force states to abolish property qualification to vote, and within a few years, the percentage of the population who could vote increased to almost reach universal white male suffrage. This set of measures aimed at placing power in the hands of the common man is often nicknamed Jacksonian Democracy.

Andrew Jackson, 7th President of the USA

3 : Paradox of US Democracy : Exclusion of Non-Whites

Jacksonian Democracy is often described as contradictory. Indeed, on the one hand, Jackson and his followers laid emphasis on equality of opportunity and the extension of voting rights : in a way, they expanded the notion of democracy. On the other hand this notion of rights was based on an idea of supremacy of the white race : His position on the rights of the Native Americans was clear : either they accepted to abandon their way of life and to conform to the American lifestyle and values, or they had to leave to make room for the expansion of civilisation and modernity. Jackson signed in 1830 the Indian Removal Act, which led to the deportation of thousands of Native Americans : they had to leave their homeland and go to special reservations further west, located in what we call today Oklahoma. The most famous example of these forced relocations happened in 1831 : some 15,000 Cherokees were forced to travel westward, mostly on foot, on a journey that became known as the Trail of Tears. On the way, nearly a quarter of them died of starvation, illness, and exhaustion. The treatment inflicted to those minorities reveals that Jackson and his supporters expanded the notion of democracy, but in an exclusive way : only for the white majority.

Painting representing the Trail of Tears. Click to enlarge.

3 : Paradox of US Democracy : Unlimited Expansion in a Limited Territory

So far, we have established the fact that many American values such as individualism, the importance of freedom and democracy, came into existence partly thanks to the frontier, that is to say the presence of free land. But the land was not unlimited : territorial expansion had to end at some point.In the 1890s, the frontier officially disappeared : the whole North American continent was now settled. And what then? Without free land, where to relocate the "undesirable" elements of society such as the Native Americans? Where to find that "blank page" mentioned by Turner, where discontent people could escape institutions which they perceived as threatening and oppressive? This is a vast question which cannot be easily answered, but just keep the existence of that paradox in mind : from the start, the American values of freedom and democracy were based on an illusion, the possibility of a never-ending expansion. The moment that illusion was dispelled, the moment the whole continent was settled, the USA reached an important turning point : no wonder it coincides with the first US interventions abroad (the 1898 Spanish-American war for example) : the possibilities of expansion had to be found elsewhere.

Dialogue from a film, about the role of the frontier as a social safety valve, and about what it was replaced with once it disappeared.

The Pioneering Spirit

4 : Influence of the Frontier on the National Character

Individualism and Self-Help

So far, we've studied how the existence of the frontier contributed to the development of the American values of freedom and democracy, and the paradoxes underlying this development. We will now focus on what remains of that early stage of development, and see that the frontier has had an indelible influence on the American national character.

Civil Disobedience

The Attachment to Gun Rights

4 : Influence on the National Character : The Pioneering Spirit

Some argue that the attitude and achievements of the first pioneers has been widely exaggerated, that there were in fact few individuals who really took to the west on their own, and that this general movement was a collective one, generously encouraged by the government, rather than an individual adventure. But the question of the veracity of the image of the first pioneers isn't in fact very relevant : what counts is what remains, and what people believe. And the pioneering spirit is undoubtedly entrenched in the Americans' collective memory. We can but note that many of the events which made the USA the most powerful nation during the 20th century were based on a form of pioneering spirit. Think about technological breakthrough (first man on the moon), economic leadership (first start-up nation and home of the most successful companies in the information technology), etc.Quite similarly, when Donald Trump promises to Make America Great Again, he is tapping into this collective memory and summoning the strength and values of the first pioneers during this golden age of development. He is basically saying : we had the courage to fight to be the first once, it's in our national character, so let's fight to be the first again.

This Teaser for the film Interstellar evokes the pioneering spirit.

4 : Influence on the National Character : Individualism and Self-Help

The situation of the first pioneers developed a deep sense of self-reliance : When far from the social and political institutions of the East Coast, you can rely only on yourself, your family and your community, you can't expect help from public institutions. What you achieve depends on your own qualities and abilities : self-help is the highest virtue. Once again, people debate whether this feature of the first pioneers has been exaggerated or not, but once again what matters is the effects of this perception, not its veracity : This sense of individualism and its subsequent aversion to collectivism can clearly be perceived in many regions of the USA. Let's take the example of healthcare : many Americans are highly suspicious of any form of public system of healthcare. Barack Obama tried to implement such a system, nicknamed Obamacare in 2010, which met with considerable resistance from a huge part of the population.Taken to its logical extreme, this sense of individualism is sometimes called Social Darwinism, a concept developed by the sociologist Herbert Spencer, who argued that Darwin's theory of evolution could apply to human societies : according to Spencer, societies should be based on the ''survival of the fittest'' : the most adapted members of society should not necessarily help those who cannot adapt; natural selection should follow its course.

Herbert Spencer, the theoretician of social Darwinism. Click to read a quote.

4 : Influence on the National Character : Civil Disobedience

Self-help and individualism, translated in politics, imply a distrust of any form of strong goverment. When you count only on yourself and your close community, any interference from a central government can be seen as intrusive. If you live in a rural county isolated in the Rocky Mountains, why accept restrictions to your liberties decided in Washington by people who have little in common with you?This distrust of the federal government is entrenched in the national character : civil disobedience has always been an important means of expression in the USA. This practice of disobeying the law to protest against an intrusive government has been used from the very creation of the nation (remember the Boston Tea Party?), and was theorised by the philosopher Henry Thoreau in his authoritative essay Civil Disobedience.

Henry David Thoreau, the theoretician of civil disobedience. Click to read a quote.

4 : Influence on the National Character : Gun Rights

Another controversial feature of the American national character is the attachment to the right to own firearms. This right is, at least in a significant part of the population, deeply entrenched, and can once again be explained by a collective memory inspired by the existence of the frontier.You probably remember that the right to own weapons is guaranteed by the Second Amendment to the Constitution : A well regulated militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms, shall not be infringed.” The terms ''A militia, being necessary to the security...'' are important : they contain the values of self-help and individualism we have already mentioned : for many Americans, the security of the nation should not rely on a national, professional army (for this would mean placing your trust in the government). Security is everybody's concern and duty, therefore everybody should have a gun to protect themselves. The army / militia debate is as old as the country : the Federalists and the Anti-federalists expressed their opposed opinions on the subject. But it is still relevant today : when Trump, during a debate, addressed the Proud Boys, a paramilitary group, and told them to ''stand by'', that is to say to get ready, he proved the importance he gives to these types of militias and the role they have to play in securing the nation.

Members of the Proud Boys at a rally in 2018. Click to enlarge.

Timeline

1803

1806

1830

1831

1849

1862

1864

1869

1890s

Famous figures

To go further...

Animated map to visualise US expansion : Video about Civil Disobedience : Thoreau and those he influenced : Article about the Proud Boys and the question of militias :

Glossary

• Self-Help

• Individualism

• National Character

• Militia

• The Sublime

• Wilderness

• Manifest Destiny

• Subsidy

• Oligarchy

• Property Qualification

• Civil Disobedience